Department of Preventive Medicine, Graduate School of Public Health, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
Copyright © 2021 The Korean Society for Preventive Medicine
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Characteristics | Overall (n = 23 248) | Large cities (n = 9253) | Rural areas (n = 7081) | Medium/small cities (n = 6914) | p-value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sociodemographic factors | |||||||
Age | <0.001 | ||||||
65-74 | 12 467 (53.6) | 5075 (54.6) | 3561 (50.3) | 3831 (55.4) | |||
75-84 | 8616 (37.1) | 3320 (35.9) | 2807 (39.6) | 2489 (36.0) | |||
>84 | 2165 (9.3) | 858 (9.3) | 713 (10.1) | 594 (8.6) | |||
Sex | 0.711 | ||||||
Female | 13 267 (57.1) | 5309 (57.4) | 4035 (57.0) | 3923 (56.7) | |||
Male | 9981 (42.9) | 3944 (42.6) | 3046 (43.0) | 2991 (43.3) | |||
Income (quartiles) | <0.001 | ||||||
High | 6064 (26.1) | 2389 (25.8) | 1870 (26.4) | 1805 (26.1) | |||
Middle-high | 6089 (26.2) | 2509 (27.1) | 1725 (24.4) | 1855 (26.8) | |||
Middle-low | 5992 (25.8) | 2406 (26.0) | 1780 (25.1) | 1806 (26.1) | |||
Low | 5103 (22.0) | 1949 (21.1) | 1706 (24.1) | 1448 (20.9) | |||
Education (y) | <0.001 | ||||||
<9 | 14 738 (63.4) | 5270 (57.0) | 5455 (77.0) | 4013 (58.0) | |||
≥9 | 8510 (36.6) | 3983 (43.0) | 1626 (23.0) | 2901 (42.0) | |||
Economic activity | <0.001 | ||||||
Active | 5316 (22.9) | 1444 (15.6) | 2529 (35.7) | 1343 (19.4) | |||
Inactive | 17 932 (77.1) | 7809 (84.4) | 4552 (64.3) | 5571 (80.6) | |||
Religion | <0.001 | ||||||
No religion | 12 414 (53.4) | 4584 (49.5) | 4294 (60.6) | 3536 (51.1) | |||
Protestant | 4373 (18.8) | 1869 (20.2) | 1060 (15.0) | 1444 (20.9) | |||
Catholic | 1744 (7.5) | 870 (9.4) | 232 (3.3) | 642 (9.3) | |||
Buddhist | 4533 (19.5) | 1853 (20.0) | 1448 (20.4) | 1232 (17.8) | |||
Other | 184 (0.8) | 77 (0.83) | 47 (0.7) | 60 (0.9) | |||
Health status | |||||||
Subjective health status | 0.142 | ||||||
Bad | 9489 (80.8) | 3717 (40.2) | 2953 (41.7) | 2819 (40.8) | |||
Good | 13 759 (59.2) | 5536 (59.8) | 4128 (58.3) | 4095 (59.2) | |||
Chronic disease | <0.001 | ||||||
≥1 | 18 109 (77.9) | 7284 (78.7) | 5253 (74.2) | 5572 (80.6) | |||
None | 5139 (22.1) | 1969 (21.3) | 1828 (25.8) | 1342 (19.4) | |||
IADL | 0.006 | ||||||
Limited | 4170 (17.9) | 1751 (18.9) | 1233 (17.4) | 1186 (17.2) | |||
Not limited | 19 078 (82.1) | 7502 (81.1) | 5848 (82.6) | 5728 (82.8) | |||
Social relations | <0.001 | ||||||
Meetings with neighbors | |||||||
<1/wk | 8302 (35.7) | 3426 (37.0) | 1844 (26.0) | 3035 (43.9) | |||
≥1/wk | 14 946 (64.3) | 5830 (63.0) | 5237 (74.0) | 3879 (56.1) | |||
Relationship with children | <0.001 | ||||||
Meetings with children | |||||||
<1/wk | 17 568 (75.6) | 6920 (74.8) | 5664 (80.0) | 4984 (72.1) | |||
≥1/wk | 5680 (24.4) | 2333 (25.2) | 1417 (20.0) | 1930 (27.9) | |||
Remote contact with children | <0.001 | ||||||
<1/wk | 7504 (32.3) | 3158 (34.1) | 2254 (31.8) | 2092 (30.3) | |||
≥1/wk | 15 744 (67.7) | 6095 (65.9) | 4827 (68.2) | 4822 (69.7) | |||
Living arrangement | 0.009 | ||||||
Lived alone | 4388 (18.9) | 1713 (18.5) | 1419 (20.0) | 1256 (18.2) | |||
Lived with others | 18 860 (81.1) | 7540 (81.5) | 5662 (80.0) | 5658 (81.8) | |||
Depressive symptoms | |||||||
CES-D-10 score | <0.001 | ||||||
<4 | 11 193 (48.2) | 4722 (51.0) | 3300 (46.6) | 3171 (45.9) | |||
≥4 | 12 055 (51.8) | 4531 (49.0) | 3781 (53.4) | 3743 (54.1) | |||
Previous CES-D-10 score | <0.001 | ||||||
<4 | 11 960 (51.5) | 5045 (54.5) | 3480 (49.2) | 3435 (49.7) | |||
≥4 | 11 288 (48.5) | 4208 (45.5) | 3601 (50.8) | 3479 (50.3) |
Variables | Crude |
Adjusted |
|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 | Model 6 | ||
Meetings with neighbors | |||||||
<1/wk | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |
≥1/wk | 0.56 (0.52, 0.60) | 0.54 (0.50, 0.58) | 0.52 (0.48, 0.56) | 0.62 (0.58, 0.67) | 0.61 (0.57, 0.66) | 0.60 (0.56, 0.65) | |
Living arrangement | |||||||
Lived with others | - | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | - | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |
Lived alone | - | 1.66 (1.52, 1.81) | 1.73 (1.57, 1.91) | - | 1.29 (1.19, 1.40) | 1.34 (1.22, 1.48) | |
Meetings with neighbors by lived alone | - | - | 0.85 (0.73, 1.00) | - | - | 0.87 (0.74, 1.03) | |
Age (y) | |||||||
65-74 | - | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |
75-84 | - | - | - | 1.14 (1.08, 1.22) | 1.13 (1.06, 1.21) | 1.13 (1.06, 1.21) | |
>84 | - | - | - | 0.92 (0.82, 1.04) | 0.91 (0.80, 1.02) | 0.91 (0.80, 1.02) | |
Sex | |||||||
Male | - | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |
Female | - | - | - | 1.13 (1.05, 1.22) | 1.08 (1.00, 1.17) | 1.08 (1.00, 1.17) | |
Education (y) | |||||||
<9 | - | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |
≥9 | - | - | - | 0.81 (0.75, 0.87) | 0.81 (0.75, 0.88) | 0.81 (0.75, 0.88) | |
Income (quartiles) | |||||||
Low | - | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |
Middle-low | - | - | - | 0.97 (0.89, 1.05) | 0.94 (0.86, 1.03) | 0.94 (0.86, 1.03) | |
Middle-high | - | - | - | 0.97 (0.89, 1.06) | 0.93 (0.85, 1.02) | 0.93 (0.85, 1.01) | |
High | - | - | - | 0.83 (0.75, 0.92) | 0.80 (0.72, 0.88) | 0.80 (0.72, 0.88) | |
Economic activity | |||||||
Inactive | - | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |
Active | - | - | - | 0.80 (0.74, 0.87) | 0.81 (0.75, 0.88) | 0.81 (0.75, 0.88) | |
Religion | |||||||
No religion | - | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |
Protestant | - | - | - | 1.00 (0.92, 1.08) | 1.00 (0.92, 1.09) | 1.00 (0.92, 1.09) | |
Catholic | - | - | - | 0.93 (0.83, 1.05) | 0.94 (0.83, 1.06) | 0.94 (0.83, 1.05) | |
Buddhist | - | - | - | 0.87 (0.80, 0.94) | 0.87 (0.80, 0.94) | 0.87 (0.80, 0.94) | |
Others | - | - | - | 0.60 (0.43, 0.83) | 0.60 (0.43, 0.84) | 0.60 (0.43, 0.84) | |
Subjective health status | |||||||
Bad | - | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |
Good | - | - | - | 0.42 (0.39, 0.45) | 0.42 (0.39, 0.45) | 0.42 (0.39, 0.45) | |
IADL | |||||||
Not limited | - | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |
Limited | - | - | - | 1.55 (1.41, 1.70) | 1.57 (1.43, 1.72) | 1.57 (1.43, 1.72) | |
Chronic disease | |||||||
None | - | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |
≥1 | - | - | - | 0.93 (0.86, 1.01) | 0.93 (0.86, 1.01) | 0.93 (0.86, 1.01) | |
Meetings with children | |||||||
<1/wk | - | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |
≥1/wk | - | - | - | 0.97 (0.90, 1.04) | 0.97 (0.90, 1.04) | 0.97 (0.90, 1.04) | |
Remote contact with children | |||||||
<1/wk | - | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |
≥1/wk | - | - | - | 0.81 (0.76, 0.87) | 0.82 (0.76, 0.87) | 0.82 (0.76, 0.87) | |
Previous CES-D-10 score | |||||||
<4 | - | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |
≥4 | - | - | - | 4.22 (3.94, 4.52) | 4.17 (3.90, 4.47) | 4.17 (3.90, 4.47) | |
Observations | 23 248 | 23 248 | 23 248 | 23 248 | 23 248 | 23 248 | |
Wald χ2 | 278.4 | 426.3 | 432.7 | 3682.5 | 3714.1 | 3714.4 | |
DF | 1 | 2 | 3 | 19 | 20 | 21 | |
p-value of incremental χ2 | <0.001 | 0.011 | <0.001 | <0.001 | >0.999 |
Variables |
Large cities |
Rural areas |
Medium/small cities |
|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 5 | Model 6 | Model 5 | Model 6 | Model 5 | Model 6 | |
Meetings with neighbors | ||||||
< 1/wk | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
≥ 1/wk | 0.76 (0.69, 0.85) | 0.77 (0.69, 0.87) | 0.64 (0.57, 0.73) | 0.60 (0.52, 0.69) | 0.46 (0.40, 0.52) | 0.44 (0.39, 0.51) |
Living arrangement | ||||||
Lived with others | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Lived alone | 1.47 (1.29, 1.68) | 1.43 (1.22, 1.67) | 1.18 (1.02, 1.37) | 1.29 (1.09, 1.52) | 1.24 (1.07, 1.45) | 1.33 (1.11, 1.60) |
Meetings with neighbors by lived alone | - | 1.11 (0.85, 1.45) | - | 0.66 (0.48, 0.92) | - | 0.81 (0.59, 1.11) |
Observations | 9253 | 9253 | 7081 | 7081 | 6914 | 6914 |
Wald χ2 | 1467.9 | 1469.8 | 1004.9 | 1010.6 | 1325.7 | 1324.7 |
DF | 20 | 21 | 20 | 21 | 20 | 21 |
p-value of incremental χ2 | 0.157 | 0.014 | >0.999 |
Values are presented as number (%). IADL, Instrumental Activities of Daily Living; CES-D-10, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale-10.
Values are prestend as odds ratio (95% robust confidence interval). IADL, instrumental activities of daily living; CES-D-10, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale-10; DF, degree of freedom.
Values are presented as adjusted odds ratio (95% robust confidence interval). DF, degree of freedom. Control variables were omitted.