Figure 1Diagram of sample selection.
Table 1.Characteristics of study subjects1
|
Total (n = 261) |
Normal (n = 213) |
Overweight (n = 29) |
Obese (n = 19) |
Sex (male) |
136 (52.1) |
115 (54.0) |
11 (38.0) |
10 (52.6) |
Age (y) |
8.21 (±0.70) |
8.19 (±0.69) |
8.38 (±0.68) |
8.11 (±0.81) |
Height (cm)**
|
132.16 (±5.75) |
131.29 (±5.37) |
135.83 (±4.88) |
136.33 (±7.15) |
Weight (kg)**
|
31.03 (±6.66) |
28.86 (±4.03) |
37.89 (±3.74) |
44.89 (±9.63) |
Parental factors |
|
|
|
|
Father’s BMI (kg/m2)*
|
23.53 (±2.32) |
23.45 (±2.26) |
23.39 (±2.05) |
24.70 (±3.10) |
Mother’s BMI (kg/m2)**
|
21.33 (±2.45) |
21.11 (±2.33) |
21.49 (±2.00) |
23.44 (±3.26) |
Father’s education (n = 258) |
|
|
|
|
Middle school |
6 (2.3) |
4 (1.9) |
1 (3.5) |
1 (5.3) |
High school |
47 (18.2) |
36 (17.1) |
7 (24.1) |
4 (21.1) |
College |
205 (79.5) |
170 (81.0) |
21 (72.4) |
14 (73.7) |
Mother’s education† (n = 259) |
|
|
|
|
Middle school |
6 (2.3) |
4 (1.9) |
1 (3.5) |
1 (5.3) |
High school |
103 (39.8) |
78 (37.0) |
17 (58.6) |
8 (42.1) |
College |
150 (57.9) |
129 (61.1) |
11 (37.9) |
10 (52.6) |
Parental diabetes*
|
6 (2.3) |
3 (1.4) |
1 (3.5) |
2 (10.5) |
Parental hypertension |
15 (5.8) |
11 (5.2) |
2 (6.9) |
2 (10.5) |
Metabolic components |
|
|
|
|
WC (cm)**
|
60.97 (±7.06) |
58.67 (±4.42) |
67.47 (±4.17) |
76.82 (±8.08) |
SBP (mmHg)**
|
108.16 (±9.67) |
106.51 (±8.49) |
114.83 (±10.78) |
116.53 (±11.98) |
DBP (mmHg)**
|
63.15 (±8.14) |
62.10 (±7.47) |
64.76 (±9.02) |
72.47 (±8.00) |
Glucose (mg/dL) |
85.97 (±7.57) |
86.05 (±8.02) |
87.07 (±4.91) |
83.42 (±4.96) |
Triglycerides (mg/dL)†
|
62.66 (±1.61) |
62.65 (±1.59) |
55.13 (±1.55) |
76.22 (±1.86) |
HDL cholesterol l (mg/dL)*
|
60.67 (±10.39) |
60.72 (±10.33) |
63.55 (±11.06) |
55.63 (±8.49) |
Table 2.Distribution of metabolic risk factors according to body mass index n (%)
|
Total (n = 261) |
Normal (n = 213) |
Overweight (n = 29) |
Obese (n = 19) |
p-value |
Waist circumference1
|
23 (8.8) |
1 (0.5) |
4 (13.8) |
18 (94.7) |
<0.000 |
Elevated BP1
|
73 (28.0) |
47 (22.1) |
13 (44.8) |
13 (68.4) |
<0.000 |
High glucose2
|
2 (0.8) |
2 (0.9) |
0.0 |
0.0 |
0.80 |
High triglycerides2
|
24 (9.2) |
19 (8.9) |
0.0 |
5 (26.3) |
<0.01 |
Low HDL cholesterol3
|
7 (2.7) |
5 (2.4) |
1 (3.5) |
1 (5.3) |
<0.73 |
Clustering of metabolic risk factors |
|
|
|
|
|
≥ 3 |
6 (2.3) |
2 (0.9) |
0.0 |
4 (21.1) |
<0.0004
|
2 |
16 (6.1) |
4 (1.9) |
2 (6.9) |
10 (52.6) |
|
1 |
78 (29.9) |
60 (28.2) |
14 (48.3) |
4 (21.1) |
|
0 |
161 (61.7) |
147 (69.0) |
13 (44.4) |
1 (5.3) |
|
Table 3.Comparison of lifestyles of normal and overweight subjects1 n (%)
Lifestyle factors |
Normal |
Overweight (BMI ≥ 85th percentile) |
p-value |
Physical activity (n = 261) |
|
|
|
High (≥5 d/ wk) |
33 / 213 (15.5) |
7 / 48 (14.6) |
0.47 |
Moderate (3-4 d/ wk) |
115 / 213 (54.0) |
22 / 48 (45.8) |
|
Low (<3 d/wk) |
65 / 213 (30.5) |
19 / 48 (39.6) |
|
Watch TV (n = 232) |
|
|
|
< 1 h/d |
66 / 188 (35.1) |
12 / 44 (27.3) |
0.07 |
1 - 2 h/ d |
70 / 188 (37.2) |
12 / 44 (27.3) |
|
> 2 h/ d |
52 / 188 (27.7) |
20 / 44 (45.4) |
|
Eating behaviors |
|
|
|
Overeating (≥2-3 times/wk) (n = 239) |
53 / 193 (27.5) |
28 / 46 (60.9) |
<0.000 |
Eating precooked/frozen food (≥1 time/d) (n = 252) |
11 / 208 (5.3) |
4 / 44 (9.1) |
0.31 |
Eating out (≥1-3 times/wk) (n = 258) |
37 / 211 (17.5) |
9 / 47 (19.2) |
0.96 |
Rate of eating* (n = 260) |
|
|
|
Slow |
65 / 212 (30.7) |
1 / 48 (2.1) |
<0.000 |
Moderate |
115 / 212 (54.2) |
27 / 48 (56.2) |
|
Fast |
32 / 212 (15.1) |
20 / 48 (41.7) |
|
Family meals (n = 260) |
|
|
|
1/d |
116 / 212 (54.7) |
28 / 48 (58.3) |
0.03 |
4 - 6/wk |
29 / 212 (13.7) |
6 / 48 (12.5) |
|
1 - 3/wk |
62 / 212 (29.2) |
9 / 48 (18.8) |
|
2 - 3/mo |
5 / 212 (2.4) |
5 / 48 (10.4) |
|
Table 4.Association between lifestyle risk factors and overweight by logistic regression analysis
|
Univariate
|
Model 1
|
Model 2
|
|
OR (95% CI) |
aOR (95% CI) |
aOR (95% CI) |
Watch TV |
|
|
|
< 1 h/ d |
1.00 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
1 - 2 h/ d |
0.98 (0.43 - 2.19) |
0.95 (0.38 - 2.36) |
1.02 (0.39 - 2.69) |
> 2 h/ d |
2.19 (1.04 - 4.59)†
|
1.49 (0.62 - 3.63) |
1.29 (0.51 - 3.31) |
Eating behaviors |
|
|
|
Overeating (≥2-3 times/wk) |
4.11 (2.10 - 8.04)***
|
3.06 (1.43 - 6.55)*
|
3.10 (1.39 - 6.92)*
|
Rate of eating†
|
3.87 (2.24 - 6.67)***
|
3.28 (1.73 - 6.24)**
|
3.28 (1.68 - 6.41)**
|
Family meal |
|
|
|
1 / day |
1.00 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
4 - 6 times/wk |
0.87 (0.33 - 2.28) |
0.93 (0.31 - 2.84) |
1.24 (0.38 - 4.00) |
1 - 3 times/wk |
0.61 (0.27 - 1.37) |
0.59 (0.24 - 1.44) |
0.66 (0.25 - 1.71) |
2 - 3 times/mo |
4.18 (1.13 - 15.43)†
|
7.11 (1.07 - 47.20)†
|
9.51 (1.21 - 74.82)†
|