Figure 1Biogeochemical cycle of mercury in a multimedia environment. Hg0, elemental mercury in atmosphere and dissolved gaseous mercury in water; Hg(p), particulate mercury; Hg2+, reactive gaseous mercury in atmosphere and dissolved reactive mercury in water; MeHg, methylmercury; HgS, mercury sulfide.
Table 1.Global anthropogenic emissions of mercury in 2005 (in tons)
Region1
|
Africa |
Asia (excluding Russia) |
Europe (excluding Russia) |
North America |
Oceania |
Russia |
South America |
Total |
Stationary combustion |
37.3 |
622 |
76.6 |
71.2 |
19.0 |
46.0 |
8.0 |
880 |
Non-ferrous metal production |
2.1 |
90.0 |
18.7 |
5.7 |
6.1 |
5.2 |
13.6 |
141 |
Pig iron and steel production |
1.6 |
24.1 |
18.7 |
14.4 |
0.8 |
2.6 |
1.8 |
45.4 |
Cement production |
10.9 |
138 |
18.8 |
10.9 |
0.4 |
3.9 |
6.4 |
189 |
Gold production |
8.9 |
58.9 |
0.0 |
12.9 |
10.1 |
4.3 |
16.2 |
111 |
Mercury production (primary sources) |
0.0 |
8.8 |
0.0 |
0.0 |
0.0 |
0.0 |
0.0 |
8.8 |
Waste incineration2
|
0.6 |
5.7 |
10.1 |
15.1 |
0.0 |
3.5 |
0.0 |
35.0 |
Caustic soda production |
0.1 |
28.7 |
6.3 |
6.5 |
0.2 |
2.8 |
2.2 |
46.8 |
Other sources |
0.0 |
0.6 |
14.7 |
7.2 |
0.0 |
1.5 |
1.5 |
25.5 |
Total |
61.6 |
977 |
145 |
144 |
36.6 |
69.8 |
49.6 |
1480 |
Table 2.Comparison of mercury wet deposition with other studies
Site (country) |
Sampling period |
Precipitation depth (mm) |
Concentration (ng L-1) |
Annual flux (μgm-2 yr-1) |
Site characteristics |
Kentucky (USA)1
|
Jan-Dec 2006 |
1286 |
8.8 |
10.2 |
Rural |
Virginia (USA)1
|
Jan-Dec 2006 |
1446 |
7.7 |
7.6 |
Rural |
Eagle Harbor, Michigan (USA)1
|
Jan-Dec 2003 |
645 |
8.3 |
5.2 |
Rural |
Pellston, Michigan (USA)1
|
Jan-Dec 2003 |
787 |
9.4 |
7.4 |
Rural |
Dexter, Michigan (USA)1
|
Jan-Dec 2003 |
896 |
11.9 |
10.7 |
Rural |
Potsdam, New York (USA)1
|
Jan-Dec 2004 |
1100 |
5.5 |
5.9 |
Rural |
Steubenville, Ohio (USA)1
|
Jan-Dec 2003 |
948 |
14.0 |
13.5 |
Urban |
Hokkaido (Japan)1
|
Dec 2002-Nov 2003 |
882 |
8.0 |
7.1 |
Rural |
Aichi (Japan)1
|
Dec 2002-Nov 2003 |
1679 |
7.8 |
13.1 |
Urban |
Hyogo (Japan)1
|
Dec 2002-Nov 2003 |
1481 |
9.5 |
14.0 |
Urban |
Tokyo (Japan)1
|
Dec 2002-Nov 2003 |
1912 |
8.7 |
16.7 |
Urban |
Wujiang River, Guizhou (China)1
|
Jan-Dec 2006 |
963 |
36.0 |
34.7 |
Rural |
Seoul (Korea)1
|
Jan-Dec 2007 |
1235 |
16.3 |
20.2 |
Urban |
Chuncheon (Korea)2
|
Aug 2006-Jul 2008 |
1062 |
8.8 |
9.4 |
Rural |
Table 3.Mean DGM concentrations measured in the fresh waters of a number of lakes in North America and Korea during the summer season
Lake |
Time |
Temperature (°C) |
Total Hg (ng/L) |
DGM (pg/L) |
Amituk (Arctic), Canada |
Aug 1994 |
3 |
0.3 |
32-41 |
Merretta (Arctic), Canada |
Aug 1994 |
1 |
0.44 |
61 |
North (Arctic), Canada |
Aug 1994 |
1 |
0.36 |
58 |
Northern Wisconsin, USA |
May and Oct 1993 |
9 |
1.5 |
40 |
Big Dam West, Canada |
Jun 2001 |
18-21.5 |
5.01 |
76 |
Puzzle, Canada |
Jun 2001 |
19.5-23.5 |
0.87 |
27 |
Whitefish Bay, USA |
Jun 1998 |
18 |
1.7 |
29 |
Michigan, USA |
Aug 1994 |
8-13 |
-0.3 |
28±17 |
Ranger, Canada |
Jun 1994 |
21 |
1.7 |
72 |
Cane Creek, USA |
Jun 2003 |
26 |
<0.2 |
37 |
Everglades, USA |
Jun-Jul 1996-1998 |
27 |
0.7-1.0 |
4-23 |
Juam, Korea |
Aug 2005 |
25.8 |
2.1 |
96±4 |
Table 4.The different sources of mercury, routes of exposure and elimination, and main effects
Mercury |
Elemental (metallic) |
Inorganic (mercuric chloride) |
Organic mercury (methyl, ethyl) |
Sources of exposure |
Environmental |
Environmental |
Environmental conversion |
Volcanic explosions, rock weathering, degassing |
None |
Fish and shellfish |
Anthropogenic inadvertent |
Industrial products |
(e.g., methylmercury) |
Combustion: fossil fuels (coal), waste incineration |
Disinfectants, antimicrobials |
Industrial production |
Industrial: gold/silver mining, chloralkali plants, batteries, switches, fluorescent lights, thermometers, sphyngomanometers |
Alternative medicines, cosmetics |
Fungicides, bactericides |
Anthropogenic intentional |
Vapor lamps, embalming |
(e.g., phenylmercury) |
Dental amalgams |
Photography |
Vaccine preservatives |
Ritual and folk medicine use |
Latex paint (pre 1990s) |
(e.g., thiomersal) |
|
Example: mercuric chloride |
|
Routes of exposure |
Inhalation (volatile at room temp): 75% to 85% absorption |
Ingestion: 10% absorbed |
Gastrointestinal: rapid & complete absorption |
Ingestion and skin: almost no absorption |
Skin: can be high and deadly |
Parenteral: 100% absorbed |
Transplacental (concentrated in cord blood) |
Elimination |
Urine and Feces |
Renal |
Feces: T1/2 45 to 70 days in adults |
Toxicity |
Lungs, eyes, gingival, skin |
Primary: kidneys, gastrointestinal tract |
Primary: central nervous system |
Also: central nervous system, kidneys, immune system |
Secondary: central nervous system |
Secondary: cardiovascular |