1Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia
2Department of Nutrition Science, Faculty of Health Science, Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta, Surakarta, Indonesia
3Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin University, Ellengowan Drive, Australia
4Department of Child Health, Dr. Cipto Mangunkusumo National Central Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia
Copyright © 2022 The Korean Society for Preventive Medicine
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors have no conflicts of interest associated with the material presented in this paper.
FUNDING
None.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Conceptualization: Nurokhmah S. Data curation: Nurokhmah S. Formal analysis: Nurokhmah S, Hendarto A. Funding acquisition: None. Methodology: Nurokhmah S, Hendarto A. Visualization: Nurokhmah S. Writing – original draft: Nurokhmah S, Middleton L. Writing – review & editing: Nurokhmah S, Middleton L, Hendarto A.
Characteristics |
Infants (mo) |
|
---|---|---|
6-8 | 6-23 | |
Unweighted sample size (n) | 747 | 4804 |
Individual level | ||
Mother’s age (y) | ||
15-19 | 44 (5.8) | 173 (3.3) |
20-34 | 546 (73.2) | 3441 (71.6) |
35-49 | 157 (20.8) | 1190 (25.1) |
Mother’s education | ||
No formal education/primary | 171 (21.7) | 1089 (23.4) |
Secondary school | 410 (58.4) | 2745 (59.3) |
College/higher | 166 (19.9) | 970 (17.3) |
Mother’s occupation | ||
Not working | 419 (56.6) | 2549 (55.7) |
Agriculture | 52 (4.9) | 400 (7.0) |
Other sectors2 | 276 (38.5) | 1855 (37.3) |
Father’s education | ||
No formal education/primary | 181 (25.1) | 1214 (26.1) |
Secondary school | 427 (56.5) | 2806 (58.9) |
College/higher | 139 (18.4) | 784 (15.0) |
Infant’s age (mo) | ||
6-11 | - | 1591 (33.2) |
12-17 | - | 1715 (35.7) |
18-23 | - | 1498 (31.1) |
Infant’s sex | ||
Male | 402 (54.9) | 2541 (51.9) |
Female | 345 (45.1) | 2263 (48.1) |
Birth interval (mo) | ||
No previous birth | 261 (37.1) | 1542 (33.4) |
<24 | 47 (4.4) | 302 (4.8) |
≥24 | 439 (58.4) | 2960 (61.8) |
Birth order | ||
First child | 261 (37.1) | 1542 (33.4) |
Second child | 252 (35.6) | 1550 (34.5) |
Third or more | 234 (27.3) | 1712 (32.2) |
Perceived birth size | ||
Small | 83 (10.1) | 613 (11.3) |
Average | 416 (58.0) | 2593 (57.7) |
Large | 248 (31.9) | 1598 (31.0) |
Place of delivery | ||
Health facility | 620 (86.6) | 3805 (84.1) |
Non-health facility | 127 (13.3) | 999 (15.9) |
Birth attendant | ||
Health professional | 696 (93.4) | 4435 (93.6) |
Non-health professional | 51 (6.6) | 369 (6.4) |
No. of visits antenatal care3 | ||
None | - | 110 (1.9) |
1-3 | 72 (6.4) | 369 (6.1) |
≥4 | 675 (93.6) | 4325 (92.0) |
Postnatal care | ||
Yes | 515 (73.8) | 3219 (69.0) |
No | 232 (26.2) | 1585 (31.0) |
Mothers reading newspapers or magazines | ||
Yes | 324 (39.1) | 2100 (38.3) |
No | 423 (60.9) | 2704 (61.7) |
Mothers listening to radio | ||
Yes | 315 (40.4) | 1929 (36.6) |
No | 432 (59.6) | 2875 (63.4) |
Mothers watching television | ||
Yes | 711 (95.4) | 4566 (96.1) |
No | 36 (4.5) | 238 (3.9) |
Mothers’ participation in decision making4 | ||
0 | 20 (1.7) | 117 (2.1) |
1-3 | 233 (34.4) | 1559 (34.3) |
4 | 494 (63.8) | 3128 (63.6) |
Mothers’ attitude towards wife-beating5 | ||
Conforming | 241 (29.4) | 1659 (31.3) |
Non-conforming | 506 (70.6) | 3145 (68.7) |
Household level | ||
Household wealth index6 | ||
Poor | 292 (32.1) | 1902 (33.4) |
Middle | 242 (35.7) | 1486 (33.3) |
Rich | 213 (32.1) | 1416 (33.3) |
Health insurance | ||
Yes | 486 (62.3) | 3106 (61.9) |
No | 261 (37.7) | 1698 (38.1) |
Community level | ||
Residence | ||
Urban | 382 (51.4) | 2429 (49.7) |
Rural | 365 (48.5) | 2375 (50.3) |
Geographical region | ||
Java and Bali | 255 (59.6) | 1552 (57.4) |
Sumatera | 186 (21.1) | 1269 (22.5) |
Kalimantan and Sulawesi | 174 (12.1) | 1147 (12.8) |
Eastern regions7 | 132 (7.2) | 836 (7.3) |
Values are presented as number (%).
1 All estimations were adjusted for the study design and sample weights.
2 Other sectors included industrial, clerical, sales, services, and professional/technical/managerial work.
3 Fitted as a categorical variable with 2 categories (<4 and ≥4 visits) for introducing solid, semi-solid, and soft foods analysis.
4 Number of decisions that mothers took by herself or jointly with partners.
5 Conforming if mothers agreed to at least 1 reason for wife-beating.
6 Calculated based on selected assets, housing materials, water, and sanitation facilities in the households.
7 All provinces in Nusa Tenggara, Maluku, and Papua.
Variables | ISSSF (n = 747) | MDD (n = 4804) | MMF (n = 4804) | MAD (n = 4804) |
---|---|---|---|---|
IIndividual level | ||||
Mother’s age (y) | ||||
15-19 | - | 1.22 (1.02, 1.46)* | - | - |
20-34 | - | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
35-49 | - | 0.95 (0.88, 1.01) | - | - |
Mother’s education | ||||
No formal education/primary | - | 1.00 (reference) | - | 1.00 (reference) |
Secondary school | - | 1.06 (0.96, 1.17) | - | 1.18 (1.02, 1.40)* |
College/higher | - | 1.17 (1.02, 1.33)* | - | 1.33 (1.11, 2.60)** |
Mother’s occupation | ||||
Not working | - | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | - |
Agriculture | - | 0.81 (0.69, 0.96)* | 1.02 (0.94, 1.12) | - |
Other sectors2 | - | 1.03 (0.96, 1.10) | 1.06 (1.01, 1.11)* | - |
Father’s education | ||||
No formal education/primary | - | 1.00 (reference) | - | 1.00 (reference) |
Secondary school | - | 1.06 (0.97, 1.17) | - | 1.08 (0.94, 1.23) |
College/higher | - | 1.17 (1.03, 1.32)** | - | 1.30 (1.09, 1.54)** |
Infant’s age (mo)3 | 1.18 (1.13, 1.24)*** | 1.06 (1.05, 1.06)*** | - | 1.58 (1.43, 1.73)*** |
Birth order | 1.31 (1.24, 1.40)*** | |||
First child | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | |
Second child | - | - | 0.95 (0.91, 1.00) | |
Third or more | - | - | 0.92 (0.87, 0.97)** | |
Place of delivery | ||||
Health facility | - | - | 1.08 (1.01, 1.16)* | - |
Non-health facility | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | - |
Birth attendant | ||||
Health professional | 1.34 (1.13, 1.65)*** | - | 1.75 (1.30, 2.34)*** | |
Non-health professional | 1.00 (reference) | - | 1.00 (reference) | |
Postnatal care | ||||
Yes | - | - | 1.09 (1.04, 1.15)*** | - |
No | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | - |
Mother reading newspaper or magazine | ||||
Yes | - | 1.13 (1.06, 1.20)*** | 1.06 (1.01, 1.10)* | 1.18 (1.08, 1.30)*** |
No | - | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Household level | ||||
Household wealth index4 | ||||
Poor | - | 1.00 (reference) | - | - |
Middle | - | 1.07 (0.98, 1.17) | - | - |
Rich | - | 1.16 (1.05, 1.28)** | - | - |
Community level | ||||
Residence | ||||
Urban | - | - | 1.09 (1.04, 1.15)*** | 1.12 (1.02, 1.24)* |
Rural | - | - | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Geographical region | ||||
Java and Bali | - | 1.00 (reference) | - | 1.00 (reference) |
Sumatera | - | 1.02 (0.95, 1.09) | - | 1.00 (0.90, 1.11) |
Kalimantan and Sulawesi | - | 0.92 (0.84, 1.01) | - | 0.90 (0.80, 1.01) |
Eastern regions5 | - | 0.80 (0.71, 0.90)*** | - | 0.76 (0.64, 0.89)*** |
Values are presented as adjusted prevalence rate ratio (95% confidence interval).
ISSSF, introduction of solid, semi-solid, and soft foods; MAD, minimum acceptable diet; MDD, minimum dietary diversity; MMF, minimum meal frequency.
1 All estimations were adjusted for the study design, sample weights and all variables with values in the corresponding column.
2 Other sectors included industrial, clerical, sales, services, and professional/technical/managerial work.
3 Fitted as continuous variable in the ISSSF analysis (values: 6, 7, and 8 months); an ordered categorical variable (values: 6-11, 12-17, and 18-23 months) fitted as a continuous term in the analysis of MAD, MMF, and MAD.
4 Calculated based on selected assets, housing materials, water, and sanitation facilities in the households.
5 All provinces in Nusa Tenggara, Maluku, and Papua.
* p<0.05;
** p<0.01;
*** p<0.001.