1Department of Public Health, William Paterson University College of Science and Health, Wayne, NJ, USA
2Department of Epidemiology and Environmental Health Sciences, Jiann-Ping Hsu College of Public Health, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA
3College of Engineering, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
4Journalism and Media Studies Centre, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
5Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
6Department of Health and Behavior Studies, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
Copyright © 2017 The Korean Society for Preventive Medicine
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors have no conflicts of interest associated with the material presented in this paper.
Content category1 |
Source category of videos |
||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Consumer (n=43) | Internet-based news (n=38) | Professional (n=4) | TV-based news (n=15) | Total (n=100) | |
Transmission: mentioned how Zika is transmitted | |||||
No | 9 (21) | 4 (11) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 13 (13) |
Yes | 34 (79) | 34 (89) | 4 (100) | 15 (100) | 87 (87) |
Mosquito: mentioned that Zika is transmitted by mosquitos | |||||
No | 9 (21) | 4 (11) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 13 (13) |
Yes | 34 (79) | 34 (89) | 4 (100) | 15 (100) | 87 (87) |
Sex: mentioned Zika transmission through male sex partners | |||||
No | 27 (63) | 25 (66) | 3 (75) | 11 (73) | 66 (66) |
Yes | 16 (37) | 13 (34) | 1 (25) | 4 (27) | 34 (34) |
Transfusion: mentioned Zika transmission through transfusion | |||||
No | 41 (95) | 37 (97) | 4 (100) | 15 (100) | 97 (97) |
Yes | 2 (5) | 1 (3) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 3 (3) |
Baby: mentioned the impact of Zika on babies | |||||
No | 15 (35) | 3 (8) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 18 (18) |
Yes | 28 (65) | 35 (92) | 4 (100) | 15 (100) | 82 (82) |
Treatment: mentioned treatment of Zika | |||||
No | 43 (100) | 37 (97) | 4 (100) | 15 (100) | 99 (99) |
Yes | 0 (0) | 1 (3) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 1 (1) |
Anxiety: mentioned anxiety/fear of catching Zika | |||||
No | 40 (93) | 33 (87) | 3 (75) | 10 (67) | 86 (86) |
Yes | 3 (7) | 5 (13) | 1 (25) | 5 (33) | 14 (14) |
Prevention: mentioned (any) prevention | |||||
No | 29 (67) | 31 (82) | 0 (0) | 6 (40) | 66 (66) |
Yes | 14 (33) | 7 (18) | 4 (100) | 9 (60) | 34 (34) |
Case: mentioned number of cases | |||||
No | 38 (88) | 30 (79) | 3 (75) | 10 (67) | 81 (81) |
Yes | 5 (12) | 8 (21) | 1 (25) | 5 (33) | 19 (19) |
Latin America: mentioned number of cases in Latin America | |||||
No | 14 (33) | 3 (8) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 17 (17) |
Yes | 29 (67) | 35 (92) | 4 (100) | 15 (100) | 83 (83) |
US: mentioned number of cases in the US | |||||
No | 35 (81) | 31 (82) | 2 (50) | 10 (67) | 78 (78) |
Yes | 8 (19) | 7 (18) | 2 (50) | 5 (33) | 22 (22) |
Public fear: highlighted that the public is/was afraid | |||||
No | 41 (95) | 37 (97) | 4 (100) | 11 (73) | 93 (93) |
Yes | 2 (5) | 1 (3) | 0 (0) | 4 (27) | 7 (7) |
Not pregnant: discussed not becoming pregnant | |||||
No | 31 (72) | 21 (55) | 4 (100) | 6 (40) | 62 (62) |
Yes | 12 (28) | 17 (45) | 0 (0) | 9 (60) | 38 (38) |
US cases: highlighted cases in the US | |||||
No | 41 (95) | 36 (95) | 2 (50) | 12 (80) | 91 (91) |
Yes | 2 (5) | 2 (5) | 2 (50) | 3 (20) | 9 (9) |
Olympics: discussed the 2016 Olympics in Brazil | |||||
No | 38 (88) | 30 (79) | 4 (100) | 13 (87) | 85 (85) |
Yes | 5 (12) | 8 (21) | 0 (0) | 2 (13) | 15 (15) |
Hoax: mentioned that people felt that Zika is a hoax, there is no such thing, or cases are staged | |||||
No | 40 (93) | 33 (87) | 4 (100) | 15 (100) | 92 (92) |
Yes | 3 (7) | 5 (13) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 8 (8) |
Conspiracy: mentioned Zika as being intentional, population control, conspiracy theory, etc. | |||||
No | 31 (72) | 27 (71) | 4 (100) | 15 (100) | 77 (77) |
Yes | 12 (28) | 11 (29) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 23 (23) |
Comedy: part of a comedy skit/parody | |||||
No | 42 (98) | 38 (100) | 4 (100) | 15 (100) | 99 (99) |
Yes | 1 (2) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 1 (1) |
Prank: pranking somebody about Zika | |||||
No | 42 (98) | 38 (100) | 4 (100) | 15 (100) | 99 (99) |
Yes | 1 (2) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 1 (1) |
Africa: mentioned Zika in Africa | |||||
No | 29 (67) | 17 (45) | 4 (100) | 12 (80) | 62 (62) |
Yes | 14 (33) | 21 (55) | 0 (0) | 3 (20) | 38 (38) |
Asia: mentioned Zika in Southeast Asia | |||||
No | 34 (79) | 26 (68) | 4 (100) | 12 (80) | 76 (76) |
Yes | 9 (21) | 12 (32) | 0 (0) | 3 (20) | 24 (24) |
Pacific: mentioned Zika in Pacific Islands | |||||
No | 34 (79) | 25 (66) | 4 (100) | 12 (80) | 75 (75) |
Yes | 9 (21) | 13 (34) | 0 (0) | 3 (20) | 25 (25) |
Content categories with no entries | |||||
No | 43 (100) | 38 (100) | 4 (100) | 15 (100) | 100 (100) |
Yes | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) |
Content category1,2 | OR (95% CI)2 | p-value |
---|---|---|
Transmission: mentioned how Zika is transmitted | ||
Internet | 2.25 (0.63, 8.01) | 0.21 |
Professional2 | ||
TV news2 | ||
Mosquito: mentioned that Zika is transmitted by mosquitos | ||
Internet | 2.25 (0.63, 8.01) | 0.21 |
Professional2 | ||
TV news2 | ||
Sex: mentioned Zika transmission through male sex partners | ||
Internet | 0.88 (0.35, 2.18) | 0.78 |
Professional | 0.56 (0.05, 5.88) | 0.63 |
TV news | 0.61 (0.17, 2.25) | 0.46 |
Transfusion: mentioned Zika transmission through transfusion | ||
Internet | 0.54 (0.048, 6.36) | 0.64 |
Professional2 | ||
TV news2 | ||
Other: mentioned Zika transmission through other avenues | ||
Internet | 3.11 (0.57, 17.05) | 0.19 |
Professional2 | ||
TV news2 | ||
Baby: mentioned the impact of Zika on babies | ||
Internet | 6.25 (1.64, 23.76) | 0.007 |
Professional2 | ||
TV news2 | ||
Anxiety: mentioned anxiety/fear of catching Zika | ||
Internet | 2.02 (0.45, 9.09) | 0.36 |
Professional | 4.44 (0.35, 56.88) | 0.25 |
TV news | 6.67 (1.36, 32.70) | 0.02 |
Prevention: mentioned (any) prevention | ||
Internet | 0.47 (0.17, 1.32) | 0.15 |
Professional2 | ||
TV news | 3.11 (0.92, 10.46) | 0.07 |
Case: mentioned number of cases | ||
Internet | 2.03 (0.60, 6.83) | 0.25 |
Professional | 2.53 (0.22, 29.29) | 0.46 |
TV news | 3.8 (0.92, 15.75) | 0.07 |
Latin America: mentioned number of cases in Latin America | ||
Internet | 5.63 (1.47, 21.52) | 0.01 |
Professional2 | ||
TV news2 | ||
US: mentioned number of cases in the US | ||
Internet | 0.99 (0.32, 3.04) | 0.98 |
Professional | 4.38 (0.53, 35.91) | 0.17 |
TV news | 2.19 (0.58, 8.19) | 0.25 |
Public fear: highlighted that the public is/was afraid | ||
Internet | 0.55 (0.05, 6.36) | 0.64 |
Professional2 | ||
TV news | 7.45 (1.20, 46.16) | 0.03 |
Not pregnant: discussed not becoming pregnant | ||
Internet | 2.09 (0.83, 5.27) | 0.12 |
Professional2 | ||
TV news | 3.88 (1.13, 13.25) | 0.03 |
US cases: highlighted cases in the US | ||
Internet | 1.14 (0.15, 8.50) | 0.90 |
Professional | 20.50 (1.82, 230.51) | 0.01 |
TV news | 5.12 (0.77, 34.31) | 0.09 |
Olympics: discussed the 2016 Olympics in Brazil | ||
Internet | 2.03 (0.60, 6.83) | 0.26 |
Professional2 | ||
TV news | 1.17 (0.20, 6.77) | 0.86 |
Hoax: mentioned that people felt that Zika is a hoax, there is no such thing, or cases are staged | ||
Internet | 2.02 (0.45, 9.09) | 0.36 |
Professional2 | ||
TV news2 | ||
Conspiracy: mentioned Zika as being intentional, population control, conspiracy theory, etc. | ||
Internet | 1.05 (0.40, 2.77) | 0.92 |
Professional2 | ||
TV news2 | ||
Africa: mentioned Zika in Africa | ||
Internet | 2.56 (1.04, 6.31) | 0.04 |
Professional2 | ||
TV news | 0.52 (0.13, 2.14) | 0.36 |
Asia: mentioned Zika in Southeast Asia | ||
Internet | 1.74 (0.64, 4.76) | 0.28 |
Professional2 | ||
TV news | 9.44 (0.22, 4.08) | 0.94 |
Pacific: mentioned Zika in Pacific Islands | ||
Internet | 1.96 (0.73, 5.31) | 0.18 |
Professional2 | ||
TV news | 0.94 (0.22, 4.08) | 0.94 |
OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; ZIKV, Zika virus.
1 The category of consumer videos was used as the reference category for the other three categories of sources of YouTube videos (Internet-based news, professional, and TV news).
2 If all videos belong to a particular category of source of video, then we cannot calculate the OR and the standard error will not be meaningful. We omitted the content category of ‘treatment,’ as there was only 1 Internet-based news video that mentioned treatment, and no meaningful OR could be calculated. Likewise, we omitted the content categories of ‘comedy’ and ‘prank’ as there was only 1 consumer video that contained such content.
n | Video length (min) |
No. of views |
||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean [SE] | Median | Range | 95% CI | Mean [SE] | Median | Range | 95% CI | Total (%) | ||
Consumer | 43 | 7.62 [1.06] | 5.82 | 0.15–37.25 | 5.49, 9.76 | 46 311 [7453] | 26 260 | 11 910–216 700 | 31 269, 61 352 | 1 991 358 (22.4) |
Internet-based news | 38 | 6.77 [1.10] | 4.83 | 0.87–28.12 | 4.55, 8.99 | 158 500 [39886] | 51 680 | 12 300–1 224 000 | 77 684, 239 317 | 6 023 012 (67.7) |
Professional | 4 | 3.27 [0.38] | 3.36 | 2.40–3.95 | 2.06, 4.47 | 28 821 [10483] | 22 200 | 11 600–59 290 | -4540, 62 182 | 115 284 (1.3) |
TV-based news | 15 | 3.19 [0.66] | 2.27 | 1.40–10.32 | 1.77, 4.61 | 50 990 [16344] | 24 120 | 12 230–264 400 | 15 936, 86 044 | 764 851 (8.6) |
Overall | 100 | 6.46 [0.64] | 4.58 | 0.15–37.25 | 5.19, 7.73 | 88 945 [16492] | 31 120 | 11 600–1 224 000 | 56 222, 121 668 | 8 894 505 (100.0) |
Content category |
Source category of videos |
||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Consumer (n=43) | Internet-based news (n=38) | Professional (n=4) | TV-based news (n=15) | Total (n=100) | |
Transmission: mentioned how Zika is transmitted | |||||
No | 9 (21) | 4 (11) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 13 (13) |
Yes | 34 (79) | 34 (89) | 4 (100) | 15 (100) | 87 (87) |
Mosquito: mentioned that Zika is transmitted by mosquitos | |||||
No | 9 (21) | 4 (11) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 13 (13) |
Yes | 34 (79) | 34 (89) | 4 (100) | 15 (100) | 87 (87) |
Sex: mentioned Zika transmission through male sex partners | |||||
No | 27 (63) | 25 (66) | 3 (75) | 11 (73) | 66 (66) |
Yes | 16 (37) | 13 (34) | 1 (25) | 4 (27) | 34 (34) |
Transfusion: mentioned Zika transmission through transfusion | |||||
No | 41 (95) | 37 (97) | 4 (100) | 15 (100) | 97 (97) |
Yes | 2 (5) | 1 (3) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 3 (3) |
Baby: mentioned the impact of Zika on babies | |||||
No | 15 (35) | 3 (8) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 18 (18) |
Yes | 28 (65) | 35 (92) | 4 (100) | 15 (100) | 82 (82) |
Treatment: mentioned treatment of Zika | |||||
No | 43 (100) | 37 (97) | 4 (100) | 15 (100) | 99 (99) |
Yes | 0 (0) | 1 (3) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 1 (1) |
Anxiety: mentioned anxiety/fear of catching Zika | |||||
No | 40 (93) | 33 (87) | 3 (75) | 10 (67) | 86 (86) |
Yes | 3 (7) | 5 (13) | 1 (25) | 5 (33) | 14 (14) |
Prevention: mentioned (any) prevention | |||||
No | 29 (67) | 31 (82) | 0 (0) | 6 (40) | 66 (66) |
Yes | 14 (33) | 7 (18) | 4 (100) | 9 (60) | 34 (34) |
Case: mentioned number of cases | |||||
No | 38 (88) | 30 (79) | 3 (75) | 10 (67) | 81 (81) |
Yes | 5 (12) | 8 (21) | 1 (25) | 5 (33) | 19 (19) |
Latin America: mentioned number of cases in Latin America | |||||
No | 14 (33) | 3 (8) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 17 (17) |
Yes | 29 (67) | 35 (92) | 4 (100) | 15 (100) | 83 (83) |
US: mentioned number of cases in the US | |||||
No | 35 (81) | 31 (82) | 2 (50) | 10 (67) | 78 (78) |
Yes | 8 (19) | 7 (18) | 2 (50) | 5 (33) | 22 (22) |
Public fear: highlighted that the public is/was afraid | |||||
No | 41 (95) | 37 (97) | 4 (100) | 11 (73) | 93 (93) |
Yes | 2 (5) | 1 (3) | 0 (0) | 4 (27) | 7 (7) |
Not pregnant: discussed not becoming pregnant | |||||
No | 31 (72) | 21 (55) | 4 (100) | 6 (40) | 62 (62) |
Yes | 12 (28) | 17 (45) | 0 (0) | 9 (60) | 38 (38) |
US cases: highlighted cases in the US | |||||
No | 41 (95) | 36 (95) | 2 (50) | 12 (80) | 91 (91) |
Yes | 2 (5) | 2 (5) | 2 (50) | 3 (20) | 9 (9) |
Olympics: discussed the 2016 Olympics in Brazil | |||||
No | 38 (88) | 30 (79) | 4 (100) | 13 (87) | 85 (85) |
Yes | 5 (12) | 8 (21) | 0 (0) | 2 (13) | 15 (15) |
Hoax: mentioned that people felt that Zika is a hoax, there is no such thing, or cases are staged | |||||
No | 40 (93) | 33 (87) | 4 (100) | 15 (100) | 92 (92) |
Yes | 3 (7) | 5 (13) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 8 (8) |
Conspiracy: mentioned Zika as being intentional, population control, conspiracy theory, etc. | |||||
No | 31 (72) | 27 (71) | 4 (100) | 15 (100) | 77 (77) |
Yes | 12 (28) | 11 (29) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 23 (23) |
Comedy: part of a comedy skit/parody | |||||
No | 42 (98) | 38 (100) | 4 (100) | 15 (100) | 99 (99) |
Yes | 1 (2) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 1 (1) |
Prank: pranking somebody about Zika | |||||
No | 42 (98) | 38 (100) | 4 (100) | 15 (100) | 99 (99) |
Yes | 1 (2) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 1 (1) |
Africa: mentioned Zika in Africa | |||||
No | 29 (67) | 17 (45) | 4 (100) | 12 (80) | 62 (62) |
Yes | 14 (33) | 21 (55) | 0 (0) | 3 (20) | 38 (38) |
Asia: mentioned Zika in Southeast Asia | |||||
No | 34 (79) | 26 (68) | 4 (100) | 12 (80) | 76 (76) |
Yes | 9 (21) | 12 (32) | 0 (0) | 3 (20) | 24 (24) |
Pacific: mentioned Zika in Pacific Islands | |||||
No | 34 (79) | 25 (66) | 4 (100) | 12 (80) | 75 (75) |
Yes | 9 (21) | 13 (34) | 0 (0) | 3 (20) | 25 (25) |
Content categories with no entries | |||||
No | 43 (100) | 38 (100) | 4 (100) | 15 (100) | 100 (100) |
Yes | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) |
Content category |
OR (95% CI) |
p-value |
---|---|---|
Transmission: mentioned how Zika is transmitted | ||
Internet | 2.25 (0.63, 8.01) | 0.21 |
Professional |
||
TV news |
||
Mosquito: mentioned that Zika is transmitted by mosquitos | ||
Internet | 2.25 (0.63, 8.01) | 0.21 |
Professional |
||
TV news |
||
Sex: mentioned Zika transmission through male sex partners | ||
Internet | 0.88 (0.35, 2.18) | 0.78 |
Professional | 0.56 (0.05, 5.88) | 0.63 |
TV news | 0.61 (0.17, 2.25) | 0.46 |
Transfusion: mentioned Zika transmission through transfusion | ||
Internet | 0.54 (0.048, 6.36) | 0.64 |
Professional |
||
TV news |
||
Other: mentioned Zika transmission through other avenues | ||
Internet | 3.11 (0.57, 17.05) | 0.19 |
Professional |
||
TV news |
||
Baby: mentioned the impact of Zika on babies | ||
Internet | 6.25 (1.64, 23.76) | 0.007 |
Professional |
||
TV news |
||
Anxiety: mentioned anxiety/fear of catching Zika | ||
Internet | 2.02 (0.45, 9.09) | 0.36 |
Professional | 4.44 (0.35, 56.88) | 0.25 |
TV news | 6.67 (1.36, 32.70) | 0.02 |
Prevention: mentioned (any) prevention | ||
Internet | 0.47 (0.17, 1.32) | 0.15 |
Professional |
||
TV news | 3.11 (0.92, 10.46) | 0.07 |
Case: mentioned number of cases | ||
Internet | 2.03 (0.60, 6.83) | 0.25 |
Professional | 2.53 (0.22, 29.29) | 0.46 |
TV news | 3.8 (0.92, 15.75) | 0.07 |
Latin America: mentioned number of cases in Latin America | ||
Internet | 5.63 (1.47, 21.52) | 0.01 |
Professional |
||
TV news |
||
US: mentioned number of cases in the US | ||
Internet | 0.99 (0.32, 3.04) | 0.98 |
Professional | 4.38 (0.53, 35.91) | 0.17 |
TV news | 2.19 (0.58, 8.19) | 0.25 |
Public fear: highlighted that the public is/was afraid | ||
Internet | 0.55 (0.05, 6.36) | 0.64 |
Professional |
||
TV news | 7.45 (1.20, 46.16) | 0.03 |
Not pregnant: discussed not becoming pregnant | ||
Internet | 2.09 (0.83, 5.27) | 0.12 |
Professional |
||
TV news | 3.88 (1.13, 13.25) | 0.03 |
US cases: highlighted cases in the US | ||
Internet | 1.14 (0.15, 8.50) | 0.90 |
Professional | 20.50 (1.82, 230.51) | 0.01 |
TV news | 5.12 (0.77, 34.31) | 0.09 |
Olympics: discussed the |
||
Internet | 2.03 (0.60, 6.83) | 0.26 |
Professional |
||
TV news | 1.17 (0.20, 6.77) | 0.86 |
Hoax: mentioned that people felt that Zika is a hoax, there is no such thing, or cases are staged | ||
Internet | 2.02 (0.45, 9.09) | 0.36 |
Professional |
||
TV news |
||
Conspiracy: mentioned Zika as being intentional, population control, conspiracy theory, etc. | ||
Internet | 1.05 (0.40, 2.77) | 0.92 |
Professional |
||
TV news |
||
Africa: mentioned Zika in Africa | ||
Internet | 2.56 (1.04, 6.31) | 0.04 |
Professional |
||
TV news | 0.52 (0.13, 2.14) | 0.36 |
Asia: mentioned Zika in Southeast Asia | ||
Internet | 1.74 (0.64, 4.76) | 0.28 |
Professional |
||
TV news | 9.44 (0.22, 4.08) | 0.94 |
Pacific: mentioned Zika in Pacific Islands | ||
Internet | 1.96 (0.73, 5.31) | 0.18 |
Professional |
||
TV news | 0.94 (0.22, 4.08) | 0.94 |
ZiKV, Zika virus; SE, standard error; CI, confidence interval.
Values are presented as number (%). Content categories for which all entries received scores of ‘no’ (0): US not prepared, aid, medical help, preparedness, cooperation, training, coordination, and danger.
OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; ZIKV, Zika virus. The category of consumer videos was used as the reference category for the other three categories of sources of YouTube videos (Internet-based news, professional, and TV news). If all videos belong to a particular category of source of video, then we cannot calculate the OR and the standard error will not be meaningful. We omitted the content category of ‘treatment,’ as there was only 1 Internet-based news video that mentioned treatment, and no meaningful OR could be calculated. Likewise, we omitted the content categories of ‘comedy’ and ‘prank’ as there was only 1 consumer video that contained such content.