INTRODUCTION

A noncommunicable disease (NCD) is a medical condition or disease that is by definition non-infectious and non-transmissible among people. NCDs have long been the leading causes of death in developed countries, but are no longer health issues limited to high income countries [1,2] . The World Health Organization (WHO) reports and many international statistics indicate that NCDs are the global leading cause of death. According to the WHO's Global Health Observatory data, NCDs resulted in 36 million deaths (63% of 57 million deaths total) in 2008 [3]. Alarmingly, NCDs are now the leading causes of death in most low-income and middle-income countries. More seriously, NCD burden is increasing more rapidly in lower income countries and populations. In 2008, four fifths of NCD deaths occurred in low- and middle-income countries, and one third of these deaths killed people aged less than 60 years [4]. The four main types of NCDs are cardiovascular diseases, cancers, chronic lung diseases, and diabetes, leading to 17 million, 7.6 million, 4.2 million, and 1.3 million deaths, respectively, in 2008 [3]. Accordingly, most public health actions have targeted modifiable risk factors to reduce the burden of NCDs, as preventing or treating major modifiable risk factors has proven to be effective in reducing mortality from NCDs. The WHO's World Health Report 2002 identified tobacco use, alcohol consumption, overweight, physical inactivity, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol as important risk factors for NCDs [5]. In accordance therewith, the present report set out to review the prevalence and trends of these six modifiable risk factors in the Korean population.

TOBACCO USE

Cigarette smoking has long been the greatest cause of NCDs in Korea. Previously, the population attributable risks due to smoking were estimated as 73% for lung cancer mortality, 32% for stomach cancer mortality, 15% for liver cancer mortality and 24% for pancreas cancer mortality [6]. An additional study reported that smoking attributed to 41% of coronary heart diseases and 26% of strokes in Korean men [7]. Korean data indicate that cigarette smoking is a major modifiable risk factor for type 2 diabetes: smoking is associated with diabetes incidence and mortality [8], and smoking cessation has been shown to reduce the risk for developing diabetes among smokers [9]. Additionally, smoking is the most contributable factor in the development and progression of chronic lung disease [10-12].

Among Korean adult males, smoking rates have decreased from 79% in 1980 to 67% in 1998 and 45% in 2007, but have not decreased any further since. Smoking rates in adult females have not seen much change (Figure 1). According to the latest Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (KNHANES) report, the smoking rate was 47% in male adults and 6.5% in female adults [13]. However, in a 2008 survey, smoking rates verified by urinary cotinine level were much higher, at 50% for male and 14% for female adults [14]. Reports have also indicated that smoking rates differ by age and socio-economic status. Among men, smoking rates were highest in those in their 30s, while among women, smoking rates were highest in those in their 20s. Lower household income was also associated with a higher smoking rate in both men and women, but this association was stronger in women: smoking rate was 4% in women of the highest income quartile, but 11% in those of the lowest income quartile [13].

ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION

Alcohol consumption is associated with increased risks of chronic liver disease, heart failure, and some types of malignancy [15-17]. Although moderate alcohol consumption has been shown to be associated with reduced cardiovascular incidence and mortality, excessive alcohol consumption is associated with elevated blood pressure and thus hemorrhagic types of stroke [18,19]. Moreover, increasing evidence supports that there is no threshold in the adverse effects of alcohol on the risk of cancer and other chronic diseases [20,21]. For these reasons, alcohol drinking of more than one drink per day is not recommended for the purpose of disease prevention.

According to the 2011 KNHANES report, 78% of male and 41% of female adults aged 19 years or older drink alcohol at least once a month (Figure 2). At risk drinking is highly frequent among both male and female Korean adults: 26% of adult males intake 7 or more drinks at least twice a week and 6% of adult females intake 5 or more drinks at least twice a week, the prevalence of which showed a slightly increasing trend (Figure 3) [13]. Among alcoholic drinkers, 38% were classified into harmful categories based on Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test: 24% for hazardous drinking, 7% for alcohol abuse, and 8% for alcohol dependence [13,22].

OVERWEIGHT AND OBESITY

Being overweight or obese is an important risk factor for all four major NCDs including cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and chronic lung disease. Moreover, obesity is a well-known risk factor of diabetes and insulin resistance. The prevalences of obesity and diabetes are increasing concomitantly in Korea [23,24]. Presumably, the population attributable risk of obesity in cardiovascular disease is increasing, as obesity itself is on the rise and the major forms of cardiovascular disease have changed from hemorrhagic stroke to ischemic stroke and coronary heart disease in Korea. The impact of obesity is also garnering greater attention among cancer prevention efforts as well. Colorectal cancer and female breast cancer are increasing as two major causes of cancer death [25,26], and obesity is a major modifiable risk factor of these two malignancies. Additionally, there is increasing evidence that obesity and chronic lung disease are inter-related [27].

Currently, about one third of Korean adults have a body mass index (BMI) higher than 25.0 kg/m². Between 1998 and 2011, the prevalence of a high BMI (≥25.0 kg/m²) increased from 29% to 34% among adults aged 30 years or older. During the same period, the prevalence of a high BMI increased from 15% to 22% among people aged 19 to 29 years old [13]. Similarly in many other developed countries, being overweight increased more steeply among low-income people than high-income people.

One unique feature in the trends of obesity in Korea is a discrepancy between men and women. Between 1998 and 2011, the age-standardized prevalence of high BMI increased by 1.1% per year in men, but decreased by 0.1% per year in women [13]. Interestingly, obesity trends were affected by household income in a different manner between men and women (Figure 4). Obesity increased in men of all income categories, although the increase was slightly greater in men of lower household income. On the contrary, the prevalence of a high BMI increased greatly from 26% to 34% in women of the lowest income quartile, but decreased from 25% to 22% in women of the highest income quartile [13].

PHYSICAL INACTIVITY

Physical inactivity is the fourth leading risk factor for mortality [28], and it has been shown to be associated with cardiovascular [29,30] and cancer mortality [31], as well as all-cause mortality [32]. In addition, physical inactivity is a known risk factor for obesity, metabolic syndrome [33], and cardiovascular disease [34]. Korean data also suggests that increased levels of physical activity are significantly associated with a decreased risk of abnormal components of metabolic syndrome [35,36].

According to the KNHANES report, the percentage of Koreans who exercised at moderate-to-high intensity, including walking, significantly decreased in both Korean men (from 71.4 % in 2005 to 50.6 % in 2011) and women (from 65.7 % in 2005 to 42.6 % in 2011) (Figure 5) [13]. Physical inactivity also differed by age and sex. The highest amounts of physical activity were shown in both men and women in their 20s, while men in their 40s and women in their 70s or older showed the lowest amounts of physical activity [13].

HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE

High blood pressure is the most contributable risk factor of stroke, and one of the major risk factors of coronary heart disease [37-40]. Hypertension is closely associated with type 2 diabetes [41], even though it is unclear whether hypertension directly increases the risk of diabetes. There is some evidence, however, that supports that hypertension is associated with risk of certain types of cancer [42-44]. Prevention and control of hypertension may be the most urgent public health issue in Korea, as the prevalence of hypertension is relatively high and stroke is the leading cause of death among Koreans.

According to early nationwide blood pressure studies in 1980 and 1990 [45,46] and reports from the KNHANES since 1998 [13], the prevalence of hypertension in the Korean population did not change very much (Figure 6). Korea, however, is a rapidly aging society, in which the age-adjusted prevalence of hypertension actually shows a decreasing tendency. Analysis of data from the KNHANES 1998 through 2011 showed that the age-adjusted prevalence of hypertension decreased by 0.2 to 0.3 percent annually (Figure 7). More importantly, the population's mean blood pressure level has decreased continuously. Mean systolic blood pressure level decreased by 8 mmHg in men and by 10 mmHg in women, and mean diastolic blood pressure level by 3 mmHg in men and by 4 mmHg in women between 1998 and 2011 (Figure 8). This decrease in population blood pressure level was largely due to lowered blood pressure levels among patients with hypertension. Management of hypertension has been markedly improved in Korea during the past few decades. Among the patients with hypertension aged 30 years or older, awareness rates increased from 25% in 1990 to 67% in 2011, treatment rates increased from 16% in 1990 to 61% in 2011, and control rates increased from 1% in 1990 to 43% in 2011 [13].

These improvements in hypertension indexes have led to a dramatic decrease in stroke mortality. However, stroke remains the number one cause of death in Koreans, and hypertension control is still the biggest challenge to reducing the burden of NCDs. Although hypertension management has improved much in general, greater attention is needed concerning subgroups. For example, awareness, treatment, and control rates are much lower in younger patients with hypertension than in older patients, while control rates within patients under treatment do not differ by age [13]. These imply that a lack of awareness is the main cause of uncontrolled hypertension among younger patients, and reinforce the importance of screening for elevated blood pressure earlier in life.

HIGH BLOOD CHOLESTEROL

High blood cholesterol level or hypercholesterolemia is a major risk factor of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases including coronary heart disease and ischemic stroke, as well as peripheral arterial disease [47]. High cholesterol level has been reported to be associated with certain types of malignancy including breast cancer, colon cancer, or prostate cancer [48-50], although the cholesterol-cancer relationship is still unclear. High blood cholesterol and diabetes are known to be correlated with each other, yet it is unclear whether hypercholesterolemia contributes to the development of diabetes. Increasing evidence, however, suggests that high triglyceride level and low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol level are associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes [51-54].

Until recently, high blood cholesterol level has garnered little attention in Korea, as its prevalence was relatively low, compared to that of other risk factors. However, reports of hypercholesterolemia are increasing (Figure 9); accordingly, coronary heart disease and cholesterol-related cancers are also increasing. According to the KNHANES reports, the prevalence of high total cholesterol level increased from 9.9% in 1998 to 14.5% in 2011. Nevertheless, while the prevalence of hypercholesterolemia is much lower than that of hypertension, the management of hypercholesterolemia is still poor. In the 2011 KNHANES, among adults with hypercholesterolemia, the awareness rate was 43%, the treatment rate was 33%, and the control rate was 26% [13].

CONCLUSION

In order to reduce the burden of NCDs, comprehensive approaches across the entire disease spectrum are needed, from health promotion, primary prevention, screening of high-risk groups, and early diagnosis to better treatment and rehabilitation. An efficient and proven strategy to reducing NCD burden is risk factor modification. Major modifiable risk factors including high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol, tobacco use, alcohol consumption, and obesity are considered preventable or treatable, and exhibit great potential in reduce NCD burden.

The initial step for risk factor modification should be monitoring of prevalence and trends in risk factors. Recently, nationwide or community-based epidemiological studies have been accumulating descriptive data on NCDs and their risk factors. Over the past few decades, we observed some significant achievements in risk factor modifications among Koreans, such as improved blood pressure control and decreased smoking rate. Despite this success, hypertension and cigarette smoking still remained the most contributable factors of NCDs in the Korean population. Unfortunately, we did not observe any significant improvement in other major modifiable risk factors. Through this report, we discerned that greater attention is needed for indentifying and modifying such risk factors among subgroups of gender, age, and socioeconomic status.

Finally, the current status and trends in major modifiable risk factors reinforce the importance of prevention, detection, and treatment of risk factors in reducing the burden of NCDs on individuals and society.

Notes

The authors have no conflicts of interest with the material presented in this paper.

REFERENCES

• 1. Beaglehole R, Bonita R, Horton R, Adams C, Alleyne G, Asaria P, et al. Priority actions for the non-communicable disease crisis. Lancet 2011;377(9775):1438-1447. 21474174ArticlePubMed
• 2. World Health Organization. Preventing chronic diseases: a vital investment. cited 2013 Jul 7. Available from: http://www.who.int/chp/chronic_disease_report/en
• 3. World Health Organization. Global Health Observatory (GHO): deaths from NCDs. cited 2013 Jul 1. Available from: http://www.who.int/gho/ncd/mortality_morbidity/ncd_total/en/index.html
• 4. World Health Organization. Global Health Observatory (GHO): NCD mortality and morbidity. cited 2013 Jul 17. Available from: http://www.who.int/gho/ncd/mortality_morbidity/en/
• 5. World Health Organization. The world health report 2002: reducing risks, promoting healthy life. cited 2013 Jul 1. Available from: http://www.who.int/whr/2002/en/index.html
• 6. Jee SH, Samet JM, Ohrr H, Kim JH, Kim IS. Smoking and cancer risk in Korean men and women. Cancer Causes Control 2004;15(4):341-348. 15141135ArticlePubMed
• 7. Jee SH, Suh I, Kim IS, Appel LJ. Smoking and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in men with low levels of serum cholesterol: the Korea Medical Insurance Corporation Study. JAMA 1999;282(22):2149-2155. 10591337ArticlePubMed
• 8. Jee SH, Foong AW, Hur NW, Samet JM. Smoking and risk for diabetes incidence and mortality in Korean men and women. Diabetes Care 2010;33(12):2567-2572. 20823342ArticlePubMedPMC
• 9. Hur NW, Kim HC, Nam CM, Jee SH, Lee HC, Suh I. Smoking cessation and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: Korea Medical Insurance Corporation Study. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2007;14(2):244-249. 17446803ArticlePubMed
• 10. Lopez AD, Mathers CD, Ezzati M, Jamison DT, Murray CJ. Measuring the global burden of disease and risk factors, 1990-2001. In: Lopez AD, Mathers CD, Ezzati M, Jamison DT, Murray CJ, editors. Global burden of disease and risk factors. Washington, DC: World Bank; 2006. p. 1-13
• 11. Mannino DM, Buist AS. Global burden of COPD: risk factors, prevalence, and future trends. Lancet 2007;370(9589):765-773. 17765526ArticlePubMed
• 12. Rennard SI, Vestbo J. COPD: the dangerous underestimate of 15%. Lancet 2006;367(9518):1216-1219. 16631861ArticlePubMed
• 13. Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Korea health statistics 2011: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES V-2). Seoul: Ministry of Health and Welfare; 2012. p. 22-27 p. 52-59 (Korean)
• 14. Jung-Choi KH, Khang YH, Cho HJ. Hidden female smokers in Asia: a comparison of self-reported with cotinine-verified smoking prevalence rates in representative national data from an Asian population. Tob Control 2012;21(6):536-542. 21972062ArticlePubMed
• 15. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Alcohol-attributable deaths and years of potential life lost--United States, 2001. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2004;53(37):866-870. 15385917PubMed
• 16. O'Keefe JH, Bybee KA, Lavie CJ. Alcohol and cardiovascular health: the razor-sharp double-edged sword. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007;50(11):1009-1014. 17825708ArticlePubMed
• 17. World Health Organization. Global status report on alcohol 2004. cited 2013 Jul 1. Available from: http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/global_status_report_2004_overview.pdf
• 18. Ariesen MJ, Claus SP, Rinkel GJ, Algra A. Risk factors for intracerebral hemorrhage in the general population: a systematic review. Stroke 2003;34(8):2060-2065. 12843354ArticlePubMed
• 19. Sturgeon JD, Folsom AR, Longstreth WT Jr, Shahar E, Rosamond WD, Cushman M. Risk factors for intracerebral hemorrhage in a pooled prospective study. Stroke 2007;38(10):2718-2725. 17761915ArticlePubMed
• 20. Bagnardi V, Blangiardo M, La Vecchia C, Corrao G. A meta-analysis of alcohol drinking and cancer risk. Br J Cancer 2001;85(11):1700-1705. 11742491ArticlePubMedPMC
• 21. Corrao G, Bagnardi V, Zambon A, La Vecchia C. A meta-analysis of alcohol consumption and the risk of 15 diseases. Prev Med 2004;38(5):613-619. 15066364ArticlePubMed
• 22. Babor TF, Higgins-Biddle JC, Saunders JB, Monteiro MG. The alcohol use disorders identification test: guidelines for use in primary care 2001. cited 2013 Jul 1. Available from: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/who_msd_msb_01.6a.pdf
• 23. Yoon KH, Lee JH, Kim JW, Cho JH, Choi YH, Ko SH, et al. Epidemic obesity and type 2 diabetes in Asia. Lancet 2006;368(9548):1681-1688. 17098087ArticlePubMed
• 24. Lim S, Shin H, Song JH, Kwak SH, Kang SM, Yoon JW, et al. Increasing prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Korea: the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for 1998-2007. Diabetes Care 2011;34(6):1323-1328. 21505206ArticlePubMedPMC
• 25. Jung KW, Won YJ, Kong HJ, Oh CM, Seo HG, Lee JS. Cancer statistics in Korea: incidence, mortality, survival and prevalence in 2010. Cancer Res Treat 2013;45(1):1-14. 23613665ArticlePubMedPMCPDF
• 26. Park JH, Lee KS, Choi KS. Burden of cancer in Korea during 2000-2020. Cancer Epidemiol 2013;37(4):353-359. 23643195ArticlePubMed
• 27. Zammit C, Liddicoat H, Moonsie I, Makker H. Obesity and respiratory diseases. Int J Gen Med 2010;3: 335-343. 21116339ArticlePubMedPMC
• 28. World Health Organization. Global strategy on diet, physical activity and health. cited 2013 Jul 17. Available from: http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/factsheet_inactivity/en/index.html
• 29. Sofi F, Capalbo A, Cesari F, Abbate R, Gensini GF. Physical activity during leisure time and primary prevention of coronary heart disease: an updated meta-analysis of cohort studies. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2008;15(3):247-257. 18525378ArticlePubMed
• 30. Lee CD, Folsom AR, Blair SN. Physical activity and stroke risk: a meta-analysis. Stroke 2003;34(10):2475-2481. 14500932ArticlePubMed
• 31. Thune I, Furberg AS. Physical activity and cancer risk: dose-response and cancer, all sites and site-specific. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001;33(6 Suppl):S530-S550. 11427781ArticlePubMed
• 32. Lee IM, Skerrett PJ. Physical activity and all-cause mortality: what is the dose-response relation? Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001;33(6 Suppl):S459-S471. 11427772ArticlePubMed
• 33. Church T. Exercise in obesity, metabolic syndrome, and diabetes. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 2011;53(6):412-418. 21545927ArticlePubMed
• 34. Oldridge NB. Economic burden of physical inactivity: healthcare costs associated with cardiovascular disease. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2008;15(2):130-139. 18391637ArticlePubMed
• 35. Lee DH, Kim YM, Jekal Y, Park S, Kim KC, Naruse M, et al. Low levels of physical activity are associated with increased metabolic syndrome risk factors in korean adults. Diabetes Metab J 2013;37(2):132-139. 23641354ArticlePubMedPMC
• 36. Jekal Y, Lee MK, Park S, Lee SH, Kim JY, Kang JU, et al. Association between obesity and physical fitness, and hemoglobin A1c level and metabolic syndrome in Korean adults. Korean Diabetes J 2010;34(3):182-190. 20617079ArticlePubMedPMC
• 37. Neaton JD, Wentworth DN, Cutler J, Stamler J, Kuller L. Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial Research Group. Risk factors for death from different types of stroke. Ann Epidemiol 1993;3(5):493-499. 8167825ArticlePubMed
• 38. Giroud M, Creisson E, Fayolle H, André N, Becker F, Martin D, et al. Risk factors for primary cerebral hemorrhage: a population-based study--the Stroke Registry of Dijon. Neuroepidemiology 1995;14(1):20-26. 7898603ArticlePubMed
• 39. Kannel WB. Framingham study insights into hypertensive risk of cardiovascular disease. Hypertens Res 1995;18(3):181-196. 7584927ArticlePubMed
• 40. O'Donnell MJ, Xavier D, Liu L, Zhang H, Chin SL, Rao-Melacini P, et al. Risk factors for ischaemic and intracerebral haemorrhagic stroke in 22 countries (the INTERSTROKE study): a case-control study. Lancet 2010;376(9735):112-123. 20561675ArticlePubMed
• 41. Epstein M, Sowers JR. Diabetes mellitus and hypertension. Hypertension 1992;19(5):403-418. 1568757ArticlePubMed
• 42. Chow WH, Gridley G, Fraumeni JF Jr, Järvholm B. Obesity, hypertension, and the risk of kidney cancer in men. N Engl J Med 2000;343(18):1305-1311. 11058675ArticlePubMed
• 43. Choi MY, Jee SH, Sull JW, Nam CM. The effect of hypertension on the risk for kidney cancer in Korean men. Kidney Int 2005;67(2):647-652. 15673312ArticlePubMed
• 44. Lee SY, Kim MT, Jee SH, Im JS. Does hypertension increase mortality risk from lung cancer? A prospective cohort study on smoking, hypertension and lung cancer risk among Korean men. J Hypertens 2002;20(4):617-622. 11910295ArticlePubMed
• 45. Kim JS, Jones DW, Kim SJ, Hong YP. Hypertension in Korea: a national survey. Am J Prev Med 1994;10(4):200-204. 7803061ArticlePubMed
• 46. Kim IS, Lee YH, Suh I, Oh HC, Oh DK, Kim SJ, et al. Korean nationwide blood pressure study. Yonsei Med J 1982;23(1):15-25. 7168195ArticlePubMed
• 47. Kannel WB. Lipids, diabetes, and coronary heart disease: insights from the Framingham Study. Am Heart J 1985;110(5):1100-1107. 4061265ArticlePubMed
• 48. Kitahara CM, Berrington de González A, Freedman ND, Huxley R, Mok Y, Jee SH, et al. Total cholesterol and cancer risk in a large prospective study in Korea. J Clin Oncol 2011;29(12):1592-1598. 21422422ArticlePubMedPMC
• 49. Freeman MR, Solomon KR. Cholesterol and prostate cancer. J Cell Biochem 2004;91(1):54-69. 14689582ArticlePubMed
• 50. Ha M, Sung J, Song YM. Serum total cholesterol and the risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal Korean women. Cancer Causes Control 2009;20(7):1055-1060. 19184472ArticlePubMed
• 51. Experience of an international collaborative group. Circulating cholesterol level and risk of death from cancer in men aged 40 to 69 years. JAMA 1982;248(21):2853-2859. 7143647ArticlePubMed
• 52. Nomura AM, Stemmermann GN, Chyou PH. Prospective study of serum cholesterol levels and large-bowel cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1991;83(19):1403-1407. 1920483ArticlePubMed
• 53. Sorlie PD, Feinleib M. The serum cholesterol-cancer relationship: an analysis of time trends in the Framingham Study. J Natl Cancer Inst 1982;69(5):989-996. 6957662PubMed
• 54. Williams RR, Sorlie PD, Feinleib M, McNamara PM, Kannel WB, Dawber TR. Cancer incidence by levels of cholesterol. JAMA 1981;245(3):247-252. 7452849ArticlePubMed

Figure 1

Proportion of current smokers among Korean adults aged 19 years or older. Modified from Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Korea health statistics 2011: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES V-2). Seoul: Ministry of Health and Welfare; 2012 [13].

Figure 2

Proportion of people who drink at least once a month among Korean adults aged 19 years or older. Modified from Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Korea health statistics 2011: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES V-2). Seoul: Ministry of Health and Welfare; 2012 [13].

Figure 3

Proportion of people who reported at risk drinking¹ among Korean adults aged 19 years or older. ¹At risk drinking: intake 7 or more drinks (5 or more in women) at least twice a week. Modified from Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Korea health statistics 2011: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES V-2). Seoul: Ministry of Health and Welfare; 2012 [13].

Figure 4

Age-adjusted prevalence of obesity by quartiles of household income. Male (A) and female (B) adults aged 19 years or older. Obesity is defined as body mass index ≥25 kg/m². Modified from Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Korea health statistics 2011: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES V-2). Seoul: Ministry of Health and Welfare; 2012 [13].

Figure 5

Proportion of people who exercise at moderate to high intensity (including walking) among Korean adults aged 19 years or older. Modified from Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Korea health statistics 2011: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES V-2). Seoul: Ministry of Health and Welfare; 2012 [13].

Figure 6

Prevalence of hypertension among Korean adults. Modified from Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Korea health statistics 2011: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES V-2). Seoul: Ministry of Health and Welfare; 2012 [13].

Figure 7

Age-adjusted prevalence of hypertension among Korean adults. Modified from Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Korea health statistics 2011: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES V-2). Seoul: Ministry of Health and Welfare; 2012 [13].

Figure 8

Trends in mean blood pressure level (mmHg) among Korean adults. Modified from Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Korea health statistics 2011: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES V-2). Seoul: Ministry of Health and Welfare; 2012 [13].

SBP, systolic blood pressure; DBP, diastolic blood pressure.

Figure 9

Age-adjusted prevalence of hypercholesterolemia among Korean adults. Modified from Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Korea health statistics 2011: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES V-2). Seoul: Ministry of Health and Welfare; 2012 [13].

Figure & Data

References

Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by  

• Cholesterol to saturated fat index (CSI), metabolic parameters and inflammatory factors among obese individuals
  Mehrnaz Shakarami, Burhan Abdullah Zaman, Abdullah Sedaghat, Huda Muhammad Abbas Qassem, Yamamah Abas Zedann, Nashat Ali Soud, Mohaned Adil, Shabnam Shirvani, Naghmeh Nikbin
  BMC Endocrine Disorders.2024;[Epub]     CrossRef
• Risk factors and health-seeking behaviours in non-communicable diseases among a community sample of women
  Bindu John, Usha Marath, Aleena Babu, Anit Jiji, Anitta Babu, Anu Joshy, Athira PR
  Annals of Geriatric Education and Medical Sciences.2023; 9(2): 47.     CrossRef
• Asthma and increased risk of myocardial infarction and mortality among hypertensive Korean patients
  Chan Joo Lee, Jinseub Hwang, Chae Young Kang, Dayoung Kang, Do Hyang Kim, Hye Jung Park, Hyeon-Chang Kim, Sang-Hyun Ihm, Yong-Jin Kim, Jin-Ho Shin, Wook Bum Pyun, Sungha Park
  Hypertension Research.2023; 46(7): 1694.     CrossRef
• Adverse Childhood Experiences and Substance Use Among Korean College Students: Different by Gender?
  Aely Park, Youngmi Kim, Jennifer Murphy
  Child Indicators Research.2023; 16(4): 1811.     CrossRef
• Lifestyle behaviors and stress are risk factors for overweight and obesity in healthcare workers: a cross-sectional survey
  Xinyue Guo, Shaoqing Gong, Ying Chen, Xiaohui Hou, Tong Sun, Jianqiang Wen, Zhiyao Wang, Jingyang He, Xuezhu Sun, Sufang Wang, Xue Feng, Xiangyang Tian
  BMC Public Health.2023;[Epub]     CrossRef
• Experiences and Beliefs on Tobacco Use, Cessation in India: A Qualitative Study
  Aswathy Sreedevi, Anindo Majumdar, Yvonne Olando, Marie Chan Sun, Catriona Jennings, Kemi Tibazarwa, Holly Gray, Katarzyna Zatonska, PK Rinu, Shana Shirin Najeeb
  Global Heart.2023; 18(1): 51.     CrossRef
• Prevalence and Knowledge of Kidney Disease Risk Factors among Nigerians Resident in Lagos State Metropolitan District, South West Nigeria
  Monica Ewomazino Akokuwebe, Erhabor Sunday Idemudia
  Annals of African Medicine.2023; 22(1): 18.     CrossRef
• Assessment of Out-of-Pocket Expenditure on Noncommunicable Diseases in Urban Slum of Mysuru City
  Choedon, M. R. Narayana Murthy, Amogha Shree, Chandan N
  Indian Journal of Medical Specialities.2023; 14(3): 157.     CrossRef
• Linking Global Youth Tobacco Survey (GYTS) data to the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC): The case for Tunisia
  Yosr Ayedi, Chahida Harizi, Afef Skhiri, Radhouane Fakhfakh
  Tobacco Induced Diseases.2022; 20(January): 1.     CrossRef
• Oral Health-Related Knowledge, Attitudes and Behaviours of Arab Dental Students: Multi-National Cross-Sectional Study and Literature Analysis 2000–2020
  Abanoub Riad, Nuraldeen Maher Al-Khanati, Julien Issa, Mazen Zenati, Nèziha Ben Abdesslem, Sameh Attia, Martin Krsek
  International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.2022; 19(3): 1658.     CrossRef
• Interactive effects of the low‐carbohydrate diet score and genetic risk score on Hypo‐HDL‐cholesterolemia among Korean adults: A cross‐sectional analysis from the Ansan and Ansung Study of the Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study
  SoHyun Park, Min‐Jae Jang, Min Young Park, Jun‐Mo Kim, Sangah Shin
  Food Science & Nutrition.2022; 10(9): 3106.     CrossRef
• The Effects of Obesity and Physical Activity on Dyslipidemia in Persons With Type 2 Diabetes
  Yun-A Shin, Jae-Hyun Kim, Ryuri Song, EunSeok Cha
  The Asian Journal of Kinesiology.2022; 24(3): 52.     CrossRef
• Non-communicable diseases risk factors among the forcefully displaced Rohingya population in Bangladesh
  Ayesha Rahman, Jheelam Biswas, Palash Chandra Banik, Biplab Datta
  PLOS Global Public Health.2022; 2(9): e0000930.     CrossRef
• Prevalence of and factors associated with health literacy among people with Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) in South Asian countries: A systematic review
  Bhushan Khatiwada, Bibika Rajbhandari, Sabuj Kanti Mistry, Shradha Parsekar, Uday Narayan Yadav
  Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health.2022; 18: 101174.     CrossRef
• Knowledge, attitudes and practices on risk factors of non-communicable diseases (NCDs): a cross-sectional survey among urban and rural adults in Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia
  Muslimah Ithnin, Nadeeya ‘Ayn Umaisara Mohamad nor, Norsham Juliana, Nadia Mohd Effendy, Mohd Azmani Sahar, Khadijah Hasanah Abang Abdullah, Muhammad Shamsir Mohd Aris, Mohd Dzulkhairi Mohd Rani
  International Journal of Health Promotion and Education.2021; 59(4): 236.     CrossRef
• Psychological stress, smoking, and hazardous drinking behaviors in South Korea: findings from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
  Hyunjoon Lee, Harold H. Lee, Augustine Kang, Yoojin Cha, Don Operario
  Journal of Substance Use.2021; 26(1): 13.     CrossRef
• Reduced Glomerular Filtration Rate and Risk of Stroke: A Nationwide Cohort Study in South Korea
  Chang-Mo Oh, Sung Keun Park, Ju Young Jung, Joong-Myung Choi, Eunhee Ha, Eun-Young Lee, Jung-Wook Kim, Hee Yong Kang, Hong Jun Yang, Jae-Hong Ryoo
  Journal of Atherosclerosis and Thrombosis.2021; 28(9): 928.     CrossRef
• Mortality, morbidity, and risk factors in Taiwan, 1990–2017: findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017
  Yun-Chun Wu, Wei-Cheng Lo, Tsung-Hsueh Lu, Shu-Sen Chang, Hsien-Ho Lin, Chang-Chuan Chan
  Journal of the Formosan Medical Association.2021; 120(6): 1340.     CrossRef
• Reduced Renal Function and Stroke Subtypes
  Yuji Shimizu
  Journal of Atherosclerosis and Thrombosis.2021; 28(9): 926.     CrossRef
• A comprehensive review of anticancer mechanisms of action of Alantolactone
  Ghader Babaei, Shiva Gholizadeh-Ghaleh Aziz, Masoumeh Rajabi Bazl, Mohammad Hassan Khadem Ansari
  Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy.2021; 136: 111231.     CrossRef
• Adding high-sensitivity C-reactive protein to frailty assessment to predict mortality and cardiovascular events in elderly inpatients with cardiovascular disease
  Si-Min Yao, Pei-Pei Zheng, Yu-Hao Wan, Wei Dong, Guo-Bin Miao, Hua Wang, Jie-Fu Yang
  Experimental Gerontology.2021; 146: 111235.     CrossRef
• Thirty-six Year Trends in Mortality from Diseases of Circulatory System in Korea
  Jongmin Baek, Hokyou Lee, Hyeok-Hee Lee, Ji Eun Heo, So Mi Jemma Cho, Hyeon Chang Kim
  Korean Circulation Journal.2021; 51(4): 320.     CrossRef
• Determination of Factors Affecting Deaths Due to Cardiovascular Diseases: A Research on OECD Countries
  İlknur ARSLAN ÇİLHOROZ, Yasin ÇİLHOROZ
  Acibadem Universitesi Saglik Bilimleri Dergisi.2021;[Epub]     CrossRef
• Health screening program revealed risk factors associated with development and progression of papillomacular bundle defect
  Sung Uk Baek, Won June Lee, Ki Ho Park, Hyuk Jin Choi
  EPMA Journal.2021; 12(1): 41.     CrossRef
• Implementation of National Health Policy for the Prevention and Control of Cardiovascular Disease in South Korea: Regional-Local Cardio-Cerebrovascular Center and Nationwide Registry
  Ju Mee Wang, Byung Ok Kim, Jang-Whan Bae, Dong-Jin Oh
  Korean Circulation Journal.2021; 51(5): 383.     CrossRef
• Epidemiology of cardiovascular disease and its risk factors in Korea
  Hyeon Chang Kim
  Global Health & Medicine.2021; 3(3): 134.     CrossRef
• Genetic Variations in Thiamin Transferase SLC35F3 and the Risk of Hypertension in Koreans
  Ja-young Seo, Jeong-Hwa Choi
  Clinical Nutrition Research.2021; 10(2): 140.     CrossRef
• The Rise in Cardiovascular Risk Factors and Chronic Diseases in Guyana: A Narrative Review
  Loshana Sockalingam, Dipika Desai, Arthur Wong, Gangji Azim, Budhendranauth Doobay, Zahira Khalid, Sonia S. Anand
  Annals of Global Health.2021; 87(1): 46.     CrossRef
• Relationship between Physical Activity and Cardiovascular Risk Factors: A Cross-Sectional Study among Low-Income Housewives in Kuala Lumpur
  Nur Zakiah Mohd Saat, Siti Aishah Hanawi, Nor M. F. Farah, Hazilah Mohd Amin, Hazlenah Hanafiah, Nur Shazana Shamsulkamar
  International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.2021; 18(11): 6090.     CrossRef
• Anticolon Cancer Properties of Pyrazole Derivatives Acting through Xanthine Oxidase Inhibition
  Abdulrhman Alsayari, Yahya I. Asiri, Abdullatif Bin Muhsinah, Mohd. Zaheen Hassan, Alamgeer Yuchi
  Journal of Oncology.2021; 2021: 1.     CrossRef
• Socio-cultural aspects of non-communicable disease prevention in three villages in the West Java
  Erna Herawati, Yulia Sofiatin
  Masyarakat, Kebudayaan dan Politik.2021; 34(3): 340.     CrossRef
• Relationship between Green and Blue Spaces with Mental and Physical Health: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Observational Studies
  Mariya Geneshka, Peter Coventry, Joana Cruz, Simon Gilbody
  International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.2021; 18(17): 9010.     CrossRef
• Pharmacological Modulation of Immune Responses by Nutritional Components
  Marthe T. van Daal, Gert Folkerts, Johan Garssen, Saskia Braber, Clive Page
  Pharmacological Reviews.2021; 73(4): 1369.     CrossRef
• Anthocyanins From Clitoria ternatea Flower: Biosynthesis, Extraction, Stability, Antioxidant Activity, and Applications
  Gayan Chandrajith Vidana Gamage, Yau Yan Lim, Wee Sim Choo
  Frontiers in Plant Science.2021;[Epub]     CrossRef
• Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity among Health-Care Workers in Ghana
  Murtala Bello Abubakar, Yaaqub Abiodun Uthman, Kasimu Ghandi Ibrahim
  Nigerian Journal of Experimental and Clinical Biosciences.2021; 9(1): 47.     CrossRef
• Associations of Dietary Intake with Cardiovascular Disease, Blood Pressure, and Lipid Profile in the Korean Population: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
  Jeongseon Kim, Tung Hoang, So Young Bu, Ji-Myung Kim, Jeong-Hwa Choi, Eunju Park, Seung-Min Lee, Eunmi Park, Ji Yeon Min, In Seok Lee, So Young Youn
  Journal of Lipid and Atherosclerosis.2020; 9(1): 205.     CrossRef
• The Burden of Noncommunicable Diseases in Ethiopia, 2000–2016: Analysis of Evidence from Global Burden of Disease Study 2016 and Global Health Estimates 2016
  Tadele Girum, Dereje Mesfin, Jemal Bedewi, Misgun Shewangizaw
  International Journal of Chronic Diseases.2020; 2020: 1.     CrossRef
• Public health preventive action to start from the fourth decade of life?
  Sarah Cuschieri, Stephan Grech
  Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health.2020; 8(4): 1248.     CrossRef
• Efficacy of Hwangryunhaedok-tang (Huang-lian-jie-du-tang, Oren-gedoku-to) for patients with hyperlipidemia: a study protocol for a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel, investigator-initiated clinical trial
  Boram Lee, Kyungsun Han, Hyo-Ju Park, Ae-Ran Kim, O-Jin Kwon, Changsop Yang, Chung-Sik Cho
  Trials.2020;[Epub]     CrossRef
• XGBoost-Based Framework for Smoking-Induced Noncommunicable Disease Prediction
  Khishigsuren Davagdorj, Van Huy Pham, Nipon Theera-Umpon, Keun Ho Ryu
  International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.2020; 17(18): 6513.     CrossRef
• Socio-demographic Determinants of Overweight and Obesity Among Mothers of Primary School Children Living in a Rural Health and Demographic Surveillance System Site, South Africa
  Perpetua Modjadji
  The Open Public Health Journal.2020; 13(1): 518.     CrossRef
• Health behaviors in major chronic diseases patients: trends and regional variations analysis, 2008–2017, Korea
  Young-Jee Jeon, Jeehee Pyo, Young-Kwon Park, Minsu Ock
  BMC Public Health.2020;[Epub]     CrossRef
• Emerging Trends in the Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases in the Southeast Region of Nigeria
  Marcellinus Nkpozi, Benjamin Adukwu, Chidiebele Ezeude, Stephen Onwere
  Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics.2020; 10(6): 18.     CrossRef
• Arylhydrazono/Aryldiazenyl Pyrazoles: Green One-Pot Solvent-Free Synthesis and Anticancer Evaluation
  Abdulrhman Alsayari, Abdullatif Bin Muhsinah, Yahya I. Asiri, Jaber Abdullah Alshehri, Yahia N. Mabkhot, Mohammad Y. Alfaifi, Serag Eldin I. Elbehairi, Mater H. Mahnashi, Mohd. Zaheen Hassan
  Letters in Organic Chemistry.2020; 17(10): 772.     CrossRef
• SCREENING OF RISK FACTORS OF CHRONIC NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES AMONG POPULATION OF THE HIGHLANDS IN TAJIKISTAN
  М.К. GULOV, S.M. ABDULLOEV, Z.A. GULBEKOVA, KH.R. MAKHMUDOV
  AVICENNA BULLETIN.2020; : 209.     CrossRef
• Can clinical pharmacists bridge a gap between medical oncologists and patients in resource-limited oncology settings? An experience in Nepal
  Sunil Shrestha, Sudip Shrestha, Subish Palaian
  Journal of Oncology Pharmacy Practice.2019; 25(3): 765.     CrossRef
• Effect of gastrectomy on blood pressure in early gastric cancer survivors with hypertension
  Hak Jin Kim, Eun Jeong Cho, Mi Hyang Kwak, Bang Wool Eom, Hong Man Yoon, Soo-Jeong Cho, Jong Yeul Lee, Chan Gyoo Kim, Keun Won Ryu, Young-Woo Kim, Il Ju Choi
  Supportive Care in Cancer.2019; 27(6): 2237.     CrossRef
• Mortality and Cardiovascular Disease in Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes
  Thwe Htay, Kyaw Soe, Arianna Lopez-Perez, Amy HoangAnh Doan, Michael A. Romagosa, KoKo Aung
  Current Cardiology Reports.2019;[Epub]     CrossRef
• 2018 Guidelines for the management of dyslipidemia
  Eun-Jung Rhee, Hyeon Chang Kim, Jae Hyeon Kim, Eun Young Lee, Byung Jin Kim, Eun Mi Kim, YoonJu Song, Jeong Hyun Lim, Hae Jin Kim, Seonghoon Choi, Min Kyong Moon, Jin Oh Na, Kwang-Yeol Park, Mi Sun Oh, Sang Youb Han, Junghyun Noh, Kyung Hee Yi, Sang-Hak L
  The Korean Journal of Internal Medicine.2019; 34(4): 723.     CrossRef
• 2018 Korean Society of Hypertension guidelines for the management of hypertension: part I-epidemiology of hypertension
  Hyeon Chang Kim, Sang-Hyun Ihm, Gheun-Ho Kim, Ju Han Kim, Kwang-il Kim, Hae-Young Lee, Jang Hoon Lee, Jong-Moo Park, Sungha Park, Wook Bum Pyun, Jinho Shin, Shung Chull Chae
  Clinical Hypertension.2019;[Epub]     CrossRef
• Physiotherapists lack knowledge of the WHO physical activity guidelines. A local or a global problem?
  Tomer Yona, Noa Ben Ami, Michal Azmon, Asaf Weisman, Naama Keshet
  Musculoskeletal Science and Practice.2019; 43: 70.     CrossRef
• Lifestyle Risk Factors and All-Cause and Cardiovascular Disease Mortality: Data from the Korean Longitudinal Study of Aging
  Inhwan Lee, Shinuk Kim, Hyunsik Kang
  International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.2019; 16(17): 3040.     CrossRef
• 2018 Guidelines for the Management of Dyslipidemia in Korea
  Eun-Jung Rhee, Hyeon Chang Kim, Jae Hyeon Kim, Eun Young Lee, Byung Jin Kim, Eun Mi Kim, YoonJu Song, Jeong Hyun Lim, Hae Jin Kim, Seonghoon Choi, Min Kyong Moon, Jin Oh Na, Kwang-Yeol Park, Mi Sun Oh, Sang Youb Han, Junghyun Noh, Kyung Hee Yi, Sang-Hak L
  Journal of Lipid and Atherosclerosis.2019; 8(2): 78.     CrossRef
• Pattern of non-communicable diseases seen in a tertiary hospital in Keffi, North Central Nigeria
  PaschalOkuchi Njoku, Marcelina Enomina, EmmanuelEhidiamhen Obehighe, IkechukwuOkeke Mbah, EmekaObumneme Okoro, MfonEffiong Essen, AdebayoFolurunsho Asalu, UsmanAhmed Kana
  Nigerian Journal of Cardiology.2019; 16(1): 60.     CrossRef
• Estilo de vida y nivel de actividad física en estudiantes de residencia médica
  Sandra Jácome Valencia, Andrés Felipe Villquirán Hurtado, María Del Mar Meza Cabrera
  Ces Medicina.2019; 33(2): 78.     CrossRef
• Gender Difference in the Effects of Outdoor Air Pollution on Cognitive Function Among Elderly in Korea
  Hyunmin Kim, Juhwan Noh, Young Noh, Sung Soo Oh, Sang-Baek Koh, Changsoo Kim
  Frontiers in Public Health.2019;[Epub]     CrossRef
• Acute effect of Clitoria ternatea flower beverage on glycemic response and antioxidant capacity in healthy subjects: a randomized crossover trial
  Charoonsri Chusak, Thavaree Thilavech, Christiani Jeyakumar Henry, Sirichai Adisakwattana
  BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine.2018;[Epub]     CrossRef
• Evaluation and Management of Hypertensive Patients According to New Hypertension Guideline
  Hae-Young Lee
  The Korean Journal of Medicine.2018; 93(5): 447.     CrossRef
• Dietary risk factors for non-communicable diseases in Kenya: findings of the STEPS survey, 2015
  Valerian Mwenda, Martin Mwangi, Loise Nyanjau, Muthoni Gichu, Catherine Kyobutungi, Joseph Kibachio
  BMC Public Health.2018;[Epub]     CrossRef
• Blood Pressure and the Risk of Death From Non-cardiovascular Diseases: A Population-based Cohort Study of Korean Adults
  Jeoungbin Choi, Jieun Jang, Yoonsuk An, Sue K. Park
  Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health.2018; 51(6): 298.     CrossRef
• Gaps in health behaviours and use of preventive services between patients with diabetes and the general population: a population-based cross-sectional study
  Hyun-Young Shin, Sohee Park, Sang Min Park
  BMJ Open.2018; 8(7): e017937.     CrossRef
• A prospective study of the association between total sleep duration and incident hypertension
  Dhananjay Yadav, Dae Sung Hyun, Song Vogue Ahn, Sang‐Baek Koh, Jang Young Kim
  The Journal of Clinical Hypertension.2017; 19(5): 550.     CrossRef
• Improved trends in cardiovascular complications among subjects with type 2 diabetes in Korea: a nationwide study (2006–2013)
  Chang Hee Jung, Jin Ook Chung, Kyungdo Han, Seung-Hyun Ko, Kyung Soo Ko, Joong-Yeol Park
  Cardiovascular Diabetology.2017;[Epub]     CrossRef
• Polyphenols, autophagy and doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity
  S. Shabalala, C.J.F. Muller, J. Louw, R. Johnson
  Life Sciences.2017; 180: 160.     CrossRef
• The prevalence and risk factor control associated with noncommunicable diseases in China, Japan, and Korea
  Defu Ma, Hiromichi Sakai, Chihiro Wakabayashi, Jong-Sook Kwon, Yoonna Lee, Shuo Liu, Qiaoqin Wan, Kumiko Sasao, Kanade Ito, Ken Nishihara, Peiyu Wang
  Journal of Epidemiology.2017; 27(12): 568.     CrossRef
• An Overview of the Applicability of Oryung-san as an Antihypertensive Agent
  Min-jeong Jeong, Ki-wan Kang, Ja-yeon Kang, Jee-hyun Yoon, Yoo-min Choi, Hong-jun Kim, Seung-ho Sun, In-soo Jang
  The Journal of Internal Korean Medicine.2017; 38(4): 443.     CrossRef
• Social determinants of adult mortality from non-communicable diseases in northern Ethiopia, 2009-2015: Evidence from health and demographic surveillance site
  Semaw Ferede Abera, Alemseged Aregay Gebru, Hans Konrad Biesalski, Gebisa Ejeta, Andreas Wienke, Veronika Scherbaum, Eva Johanna Kantelhardt, Hajo Zeeb
  PLOS ONE.2017; 12(12): e0188968.     CrossRef
• Attribution to Heterogeneous Risk Factors for Breast Cancer Subtypes Based on Hormone Receptor and Human Epidermal Growth Factor 2 Receptor Expression in Korea
  Boyoung Park, Ji-Yeob Choi, Ho Kyung Sung, Choonghyun Ahn, Yunji Hwang, Jieun Jang, Juyeon Lee, Heewon Kim, Hai-Rim Shin, Sohee Park, Wonshik Han, Dong-Young Noh, Keun-Young Yoo, Daehee Kang, Sue K. Park
  Medicine.2016; 95(14): e3063.     CrossRef
• Epidemiology of dyslipidemia in Korea
  Hyeon Chang Kim
  Journal of the Korean Medical Association.2016; 59(5): 352.     CrossRef
• 2015 Korean Guidelines for the Management of Dyslipidemia: Executive Summary (English Translation)
  
  Korean Circulation Journal.2016; 46(3): 275.     CrossRef
• Thirty-Year Trends in Mortality from Cerebrovascular Diseases in Korea
  Seung Won Lee, Hyeon Chang Kim, Hye Sun Lee, Il Suh
  Korean Circulation Journal.2016; 46(4): 507.     CrossRef
• Urban–Rural Differences in Health-Care-Seeking Pattern of Residents of Abia State, Nigeria, and the Implication in the Control of NCDs
  Ugochukwu U. Onyeonoro, Okechukwu S. Ogah, Andrew U. Ukegbu, Innocent I. Chukwuonye, Okechukwu O. Madukwe, Akhimiem O. Moses
  Health Services Insights.2016; 9: HSI.S31865.     CrossRef
• Perceptions of the roles of behaviour and genetics in disease risk: Are they associated with behaviour change attempts
  Anh B. Nguyen, April Oh, Richard P. Moser, Heather Patrick
  Psychology & Health.2015; 30(3): 336.     CrossRef
• 2013 Korean Society of Hypertension guidelines for the management of hypertension: part I–epidemiology and diagnosis of hypertension
  Jinho Shin, Jeong Bae Park, Kwang-il Kim, Ju Han Kim, Dong Heon Yang, Wook Bum Pyun, Young Gweon Kim, Gheun-Ho Kim, Shung Chull Chae
  Clinical Hypertension.2015;[Epub]     CrossRef
• A retrospective analysis of the association between tobacco smoking and deaths from respiratory and cardiovascular diseases in the Kassena-Nankana districts of Northern Ghana
  Philip Ayizem Dalinjong, Paul Welaga, Daniel K Azongo, Samuel Chatio, Dominic Anaseba, Felix Kondayire, James Akazili, Cornelius Debpuur, Abraham Rexford Oduro
  Tobacco Induced Diseases.2015;[Epub]     CrossRef
• Thirty-Year Trends in Mortality from Cardiovascular Diseases in Korea
  Seung Won Lee, Hyeon Chang Kim, Hye Sun Lee, Il Suh
  Korean Circulation Journal.2015; 45(3): 202.     CrossRef
• Epigenetics and the Burden of Noncommunicable Disease: A Paucity of Research in Africa
  Angela Hobbs, Michèle Ramsay
  Epigenomics.2015; 7(4): 627.     CrossRef
• Ethnopharmacological analysis of medicinal plants used against non-communicable diseases in Rodrigues Island, Indian Ocean
  Anne Kathie Samoisy, M. Fawzi Mahomoodally
  Journal of Ethnopharmacology.2015; 173: 20.     CrossRef
• 2015 Korean Guidelines for Management of Dyslipidemia
  
  Journal of Lipid and Atherosclerosis.2015; 4(1): 61.     CrossRef
• The Korean Society of Hypertension Guidelines for the Management of Hypertension in 2013: Its Essentials and Key Points
  Hae-Young Lee, Jeong Bae Park
  Pulse.2015; 3(1): 21.     CrossRef
• Risk factors for anal fistula: a case–control study
  D. Wang, G. Yang, J. Qiu, Y. Song, L. Wang, J. Gao, C. Wang
  Techniques in Coloproctology.2014; 18(7): 635.     CrossRef
• The Recent Decline in Prevalence of Dementia in Developed Countries: Implications for Prevention in the Republic of Korea
  Yunhwan Lee
  Journal of Korean Medical Science.2014; 29(7): 913.     CrossRef
• Allergic diseases in the Asia Pacific: path into the future
  Gary Wing-Kin Wong
  Asia Pacific Allergy.2013; 3(4): 207.     CrossRef