Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health

Original Articles

A Longitudinal Study on the Causal Association Between Smoking and Depression.: Eunjeong Kang, Jaehee Lee; J Prev Med Public Health. 2010;43(3):193-204.; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.2010.43.3.193

8,916 View
186 Download
39 Crossref

OBJECTIVES
The objective of this study was to analyze the causal relationship between smoking and depression using longitudinal data. METHODS: Two waves of the Korea Welfare Panel collected in 2006 and 2007 were used. The sample consisted of 14 426 in 2006 and 13 052 in 2007 who were aged 20 and older. Smoking was measured by smoking amount (none/ or = two packs). Depression was defined when the summated CESD (center for epidemiological studies depression)-11 score was greater than or equal to 16. The causal relationship between smoking and depression was tested using logistic regression. In order to test the causal effect of smoking on depression, depression at year 2 was regressed on smoking status at year 1 only using the sample without depression at year 1. Likewise, smoking status at year 2 was regressed on depression at year 1 only using those who were not smoking at year 1 in order to test the causal effect of depression on smoking. The statistical package used was Stata 10.0. Sampling weights were applied to obtain the population estimation. RESULTS: The logistic regression testing for the causal relationship between smoking and depression showed that smoking at year 1 was significantly related to depression at year 2. Smoking amounts associated with depression were different among age groups. On the other hand, the results from the logistic regression testing for the opposite direction of the relationship between smoking and depression found no significant association regardless of age group. CONCLUSIONS: The study results showed some evidence that smoking caused depression but not the other way around.

Summary

Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by

Exploring relationships between sleep quality and clinical depression in the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging
Samia Salame, Therese Chan, Tetyana Kendzerska, Stacey Fisher, Douglas Manuel, Amy T. Hsu
Sleep Medicine.2026; 138: 108692. CrossRef
Blood Concentrations of Folic Acid and Homocysteine Are Associated with Treatment-Resistant Depression Among Female Depressed Patients
Iva Radoš, Zrinka Vuksan-Ćusa, Jakov Milić, Marina Šagud, Ana Lončar Vrančić, Nenad Jakšić, Bjanka Vuksan-Ćusa, Nela Pivac
Biomolecules.2026; 16(1): 70. CrossRef
The relationship between unhealthy lifestyle behaviors and depression: Evidence from NHANES
Qian Tian, Jiahui Guo, Jingyun Ding, Yan Zhu
Journal of Affective Disorders.2025; 384: 214. CrossRef
Risk and protective factors for severe mental disorders in Asia
Fatima Zahra Rami, Ling Li, Thi Hung Le, Chaeyeong Kang, Mi Ah Han, Young-Chul Chung
Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews.2024; 161: 105652. CrossRef
Associations of cannabis use, tobacco use, and incident anxiety, mood, and psychotic disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Chloe Burke, Tom P. Freeman, Hannah Sallis, Robyn E. Wootton, Annabel Burnley, Jonas Lange, Rachel Lees, Katherine Sawyer, Gemma M. J. Taylor
Psychological Medicine.2024; 54(15): 4287. CrossRef
Prenatal predictors of postpartum depression trajectories from birth to 24 months amongst smoking women
Seth Frndak, Samie Syed, Julian Saleh, Megan Kocher, Xiaozhong Wen
Journal of Clinical Nursing.2022; 31(11-12): 1643. CrossRef
The long‐term health effects of initiating smoking in adolescence: Evidence from a national longitudinal survey
Aliaksandr Amialchuk, Onur Sapci
Health Economics.2022; 31(4): 597. CrossRef
Tobacco smoking and depressive symptoms in Chinese middle-aged and older adults: Handling missing values in panel data with multiple imputation
Xiahua Du, Rina Wu, Lili Kang, Longlong Zhao, Changle Li
Frontiers in Public Health.2022;[Epub] CrossRef
Physical activity mitigates the link between adverse childhood experiences and depression among U.S. adults
Michael F. Royer, Christopher Wharton, Catalina Castaño
PLOS ONE.2022; 17(10): e0275185. CrossRef
Smoking and Neuropsychiatric Disease—Associations and Underlying Mechanisms
Omar Hahad, Andreas Daiber, Matthias Michal, Marin Kuntic, Klaus Lieb, Manfred Beutel, Thomas Münzel
International Journal of Molecular Sciences.2021; 22(14): 7272. CrossRef
Association of Alcohol and Tobacco Consumption with Depression Severity in the Oldest Old. Results from the Age Different Old Age Cohort Platform
Janine Quittschalle, Alexander Pabst, Margrit Löbner, Melanie Luppa, Kathrin Heser, Michael Wagner, Hendrik van den Bussche, André Hajek, Hans-Helmut König, Birgitt Wiese, Matthias C. Angermeyer, Wolfgang Maier, Martin Scherer, Steffi G. Riedel-Heller
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.2021; 18(15): 7959. CrossRef
Waterpipe and cigarette tobacco smoking and depressive symptoms among public school students in central Jordan
Sukaina Alzyoud, Farah Massoud
Journal of Health Research.2020;[Epub] CrossRef
Happiness among second year MBBS students and its correlates using Oxford Happiness Questionnaire
Shivam Kamthan, Saurabh Sharma, Rahul Bansal, Bhawna Pant, Parul Saxena, Shivakshi Chansoria, Arvind Shukla
Journal of Oral Biology and Craniofacial Research.2019; 9(2): 190. CrossRef
Mechanisms Underlying the Anti-Depressive Effects of Regular Tea Consumption
Dylan O’Neill Rothenberg, Lingyun Zhang
Nutrients.2019; 11(6): 1361. CrossRef
Acute Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Affect and Smoking Craving in the Weeks Before and After a Cessation Attempt
Ana M Abrantes, Samantha G Farris, Haruka Minami, David R Strong, Deborah Riebe, Richard A Brown
Nicotine & Tobacco Research.2018; 20(5): 575. CrossRef
The Association of Cigarette Smoking With Depression and Anxiety: A Systematic Review
Meg Fluharty, Amy E. Taylor, Meryem Grabski, Marcus R. Munafò
Nicotine & Tobacco Research.2017; 19(1): 3. CrossRef
Depressive Symptoms Delayed Quit Attempts and Shortened Abstinence in Young Smokers of the Hong Kong Youth Quitline
David C. N. Wong, Sophia S. C. Chan, Tai-hing Lam
Nicotine & Tobacco Research.2016; 18(3): 251. CrossRef
Happiness Among College Students: A Cross-Sectional Web-Based Study Among Iranian Medical Students
Azadeh Lesani, Asghar Mohammadpoorasl, Maryam Javadi, Hossein Ansari, Ali Fakhari
Biotechnology and Health Sciences.2016;[Epub] CrossRef
Increased Risk of Major Depression With Early Age of Exposure to Cigarettes
Bishnu Devkota, Joanne Salas, Lauren Garfield
American Journal of Preventive Medicine.2016; 51(6): 933. CrossRef
Effects of corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 SNPs on major depressive disorder are influenced by sex and smoking status
Bruna S. da Silva, Diego L. Rovaris, Jaqueline B. Schuch, Nina R. Mota, Renata B. Cupertino, Angelita P. Aroche, Guilherme P. Bertuzzi, Rafael G. Karam, Eduardo S. Vitola, Luciana Tovo-Rodrigues, Eugenio H. Grevet, Claiton H.D. Bau
Journal of Affective Disorders.2016; 205: 282. CrossRef
Emotional and Affective Temperaments in Smoking Candidates for Bariatric Surgery
Karin Daniele Mombach, Cesar Luis de Souza Brito, Alexandre Vontobel Padoin, Daniela Schaan Casagrande, Claudio Cora Mottin, Franco Folli
PLOS ONE.2016; 11(3): e0150722. CrossRef
Changes in Prevalence of Depression and Anxiety Following Smoking Cessation: Results From an International Cohort Study (ATTEMPT)
L. Shahab, S. Andrew, R. West
Focus.2015; 13(3): 385. CrossRef
Mood, Mood Regulation, and Frontal Systems Functioning in Current Smokers, Long-Term Abstinent Ex-Smokers, and Never-Smokers
Michael Lyvers, Cassandra Carlopio, Vicole Bothma, Mark S. Edwards
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs.2014; 46(2): 133. CrossRef
How robust is the association between smoking and depression in adults? A meta-analysis using linear mixed-effects models
Tana M. Luger, Jerry Suls, Mark W. Vander Weg
Addictive Behaviors.2014; 39(10): 1418. CrossRef
Changes in prevalence of depression and anxiety following smoking cessation: results from an international cohort study (ATTEMPT)
L. Shahab, S. Andrew, R. West
Psychological Medicine.2014; 44(1): 127. CrossRef
The impact of lifestyle factors on the 2-year course of depressive and/or anxiety disorders
Lynn Boschloo, Kerstin G. Reeuwijk, Robert A. Schoevers, Brenda W.J.H. Penninx
Journal of Affective Disorders.2014; 159: 73. CrossRef
Prenatal maternal depression is associated with low birth weight through shorter gestational age in term infants in Korea
Hyoung Yoon Chang, Katherine M. Keyes, Kyung-Sook Lee, In Ae Choi, Se Joo Kim, Kyung Won Kim, Youn Ho Shin, Kang Mo Ahn, Soo-Jong Hong, Yee-Jin Shin
Early Human Development.2014; 90(1): 15. CrossRef
Heavy overtime work and depressive disorder among male workers
R. Kato, Y. Haruyama, M. Endo, A. Tsutsumi, T. Muto
Occupational Medicine.2014; 64(8): 622. CrossRef
Smoking uptake is associated with increased psychological distress: results of a national longitudinal study
Kristie N Carter, Frederieke S van der Deen, Nick Wilson, Tony Blakely
Tobacco Control.2014; 23(1): 33. CrossRef
Inverted U shaped effect of nicotine on the severity of depressive symptoms: A population-based survey
Ammar W. Ashor
Journal of Young Pharmacists.2013; 5(2): 60. CrossRef
Mood, mood regulation expectancies and frontal systems functioning in current smokers versus never-smokers in China and Australia
Michael Lyvers, Cassandra Carlopio, Vicole Bothma, Mark S. Edwards
Addictive Behaviors.2013; 38(11): 2741. CrossRef
Smoking is a predictor of depression onset among National Guard soldiers
Renee D. Goodwin, Marta Prescott, Marijo Tamburrino, Joseph R. Calabrese, Israel Liberzon, Sandro Galea
Psychiatry Research.2013; 206(2-3): 321. CrossRef
Compositional and Contextual Factors Related to Area Differentials in Suicide
Eunjeong Kang
Korean Journal of Health Education and Promotion.2013; 30(1): 41. CrossRef
Trends in the Prevalence of Tobacco Use in the United States, 1991–1992 to 2004–2005
Roberto Secades-Villa, Mark Olfson, Mayumi Okuda, Natalie Velasquez, Gabriela Pérez-Fuentes, Shan-Min Liu, Carlos Blanco
Psychiatric Services.2013; 64(5): 458. CrossRef
Association of smoking and nicotine dependence with severity and course of symptoms in patients with depressive or anxiety disorder
Mumtaz Jamal, A.J. Willem Van der Does, Pim Cuijpers, Brenda W.J.H. Penninx
Drug and Alcohol Dependence.2012; 126(1-2): 138. CrossRef
Differences in happiness between smokers, ex-smokers and never smokers: cross-sectional findings from a national household survey
Lion Shahab, Robert West
Drug and Alcohol Dependence.2012; 121(1-2): 38. CrossRef
A twin study of depression and nicotine dependence: Shared liability or causal relationship?
Alexis C. Edwards, Kenneth S. Kendler
Journal of Affective Disorders.2012; 142(1-3): 90. CrossRef
Age at Smoking Onset and the Onset of Depression and Anxiety Disorders
M. Jamal, A. J. W. V. d. Does, B. W. J. H. Penninx, P. Cuijpers
Nicotine & Tobacco Research.2011; 13(9): 809. CrossRef
Tobacco smoking and depression: results of a cross-sectional study
Vanessa Argondizo dos Santos, Ana Maria Migott, Claiton Henrique Dotto Bau, José Miguel Chatkin
British Journal of Psychiatry.2010; 197(5): 413. CrossRef

Association of Hospital Procedure Volume with Post-Transplant Survival for Allogeneic Bone Marrow Transplantation.: Choon Seon Park, Hee Kyung Moon, Hye Young Kang, Yoo Hong Min, Woo Hyun Cho; J Prev Med Public Health. 2004;37(1):26-36.

2,961 View
32 Download

Abstract PDF: OBJECTIVE
To examine the association between hospital procedure volume and treatment outcomes following allogeneic bone marrow transplantation (allo-BMT). METHODS: Out of 1, 050 patients who received allo-BMTs between 1998 and 2000 in 21 Korean hospitals, 752 with first allo-BMT and complete data were included in this study. Study subjects were divided into the following three groups according to cumulative hospital experience of all-BMTs during the study period: low (< 30 cases), medium (30-49) and high (> or =50 cases) volume. Patient outcome was defined as early survival at day 100 and one-year survival. Multiple logistic regression analyses were performed to examine the association between hospital experience and survival at day 100 and one year. RESULTS: When the low volume group was defined as the reference group, the adjusted relative risks (RR) of survival at day 100 for the high volume group were 2.46 (95% CI, 1.13-5.36) for all patients, 2.61 (1.04-6.57) for those with leukemia, and 2.20 (0.47-10.32) for those with aplastic anemia. For one-year survival, adjusted RR for the high volume group were 2.52 (1.40-4.51) for all patients, 1.99 (1.01-3.93) for leukemia, and 6.50 (1.57-26.80) for aplastic anemia. None of the RR for the medium volume group was statistically significant. Patient factors showing significant relationship with survival were donor-recipient relation, human leukocyte antigen matching status, time from diagnosis to transplant, and disease stage. CONCLUSION: The study results suggest that the cumulative experience of hospitals in providing allo-BMT is positively associated with patient survival.; Summary

The Study on Volume Relationships in Several Diseases.: Sunhee Lee, Yonggweon Jwa; Korean J Prev Med. 1994;27(4):793-806.

2,419 View
19 Download

Abstract PDF: Investigating the existence of volume-outcome relationships for specific disease groups relates directly to the policy issue of whether, and how, specific inpatient services should be regionalized. This study examined whether medical costs and lengths of stay as outcomes were affected by changes in volume within hospitals. Based on the claims data obtained from National Federation of Medical Associations, each six disease categories from medical and surgical conditions were selected and 29,720 cases from 1,266 hospitals were analyzed. Main findings of the research can be summarized as follows: 1. Analyzing volume and cost per case relationship, tonsillectomy class 1, hernia procedure class 0, appendectomy and cesarean section class 0,1 in surgical conditions showed negative relationship significantly. In cases of medical conditions, costs per case in respiratory neoplasm class 2, COPD class 1, 2, digestive malignancy were also related to volume negatively. 2. Comparing volume with length of stay per case, lens procedure class 0, hernia procedure class 0, appendectomy class 0,1 cesarean section class 1 in surgical conditions showed negative relationships significantly. In medical conditions, volume of respiratory neoplasm class 2, COPD class 1,2, digestive malignancy class 0 were associated with negatively. 3. within same disease categories, changes in cost and length of stay per case to volume were more remarkable in severe cases. These results suggested a significant inverse relationship between disease cases and cost, length of stay per case as outcome variables.; Summary

A Preliminary Epidemiologic Study on Korean Veterans Exposed to Herbicides in Vietnam War.: Joung Soon Kim, Hyun Sul Lee, Hong Bok Lee, Won Young Lee, Young Joo Park, Sung Soo Kim; Korean J Prev Med. 1994;27(4):711-734.

2,923 View
26 Download

Abstract PDF: Among chemical agents in herbicides, dioxin(2,3,7,8-tetrachloro dibenzo-rho-dioxin: a chemical contaminant in herbicides sprayed during the vietnam war has been known to be the major agent causing toxic effects. Approximately 320,000 korean soldiers participated the vietnam war from 1964 to 1974. Although the potential hazards of the herbicides among Korean veterans exposed were implicated, the problem had not been a public issue until 1991 when Korean veterans were informed U. S. companies, the herbicides manufacturer payed fund, from which a trust fund for New Zealand and Australian Class members were established in 1985. After a series of appeals and demonstration by the korean veterans demanding medical care and compensation for their serious health damages, a bill of medical care and compensation for herbicides victims was promulgated in March 1993 and become effective from May 1993. This study was carried out with two major objectives: the first to understand the health problems caused from the herbicides by reviewing literatures published, and the second to examine the nature and extent of health impacts among Korean veterans exposed and to develop valid study methods for the major study by interviewing and reviewing records on a part of veterans (638 persons) registered and completed medical examination in Seoul Veterans Administration Hospital from June to october 1993. The results obtained are as follows: 1. The literature review of 107 papers revealed that: l) Dioxin is teratogenic, carcinogenic and affects almost all organs including nertous, endocrine, and reproductive systems in animal experiments. 2) The diseases showing evidence of causal association were Hodgkin's disease, non-Hodgkin's disease, lung cancer, lymphoma, soft tissue sarcoma, chloroacne and polyneuropathy when judged on the basis of consistency in study results and biological plausibility. 2. Interview and medical record review study on 638 veterans, though limited validity owing to lack of control group, crude estimates of dioxin exposure levels (no biomarkers measurable), and uncertainty of diagnosis, showed that: 1) Most of the study subject's were in their 40's of age and had been dispatched to vietnam during the period from 1965-1970 around one year. 2) Most frequently complained symptoms in medical examination were motor weakness(32%), sensory abnormalities in extremities(23%), skin diseases(22%), and pain in extremities(20%) whereas in interview they were more frequent in order of skin problem(44%), motor weakness (38%), sensory abnormalities and pain in extremities(l7% and 19% each). Kappa indices on the same category of complaints between two sources of information were variable and relatively low. 3) On medical examination, only a part of the 638 subjects had initial impression (442 pts) and final diagnosis (218 pts) suggesting decision making on diagnosis appeared to be difficult even with all available modern medical technologies; in initial impression disorders from peripheral and central neuropathy were predominant whereas in final diagnosis various types of skin disorder were most frequent. 4) when dose-response relationship between several conditions (from questionnaire) and arbitrary exposure scores were examined by CMH linear trend test, spontaneous abortion, sexual problems and health problem of offsprings showed statistically significant linear trends. However, pregnancy, accident and suicidal attempts did not show any relationship in this study capacity. 5) Among complaints, psychosis and neurosis(anxiety, phobia) in interview study, and memory disorder and psychosis in medical record study revealed linear trend. 6) Skin disorder was the only condition showing linear trend in initial impression and none in final diagnosis on medical examination. Even though objective to select out dioxin-related disease or group of diseases from this study was not achieved the research experiences provided firm basis for developing various methodological approaches. 3. From this preliminary study we concluded that a larger scale major epidemiologic study on health impacts of herbicides among Korean veterans exposed is not only indispensible but also well designed study with more valid exposure information and diagnosis may be able to establish causal relationship between certain groups of diseases and exposure to the herbicides among Korean veterans.; Summary

Association of osteoarthritis and bone mineral density in women: The health and nutritional examination survey in Kuri.: Seung Soo Sheen, Soon Young Lee, Byung Hyun Min, Il Suh; Korean J Prev Med. 1997;30(4):669-685.

2,800 View
28 Download

Abstract PDF: Previous studies, reporting the inverse relationship between osteoarthritis and osteoporosis suggest the existence of possible pathophysiologic mechanisms between them. To examine the hypothessis that "bone mineral densities of women with osteoarthritis are significantly higher than that of women without osteoarthritis in Korea", subjects from the health and nutritional examination survey in Kuri city were sampled. Samples were selected through multi-stage sampling frame using established clusters in Kuri city. From August 18 to September 10, 1997, the survey was conducted. Among the total number of selected sample population(1,656 people), response rate was 52.4 percent(348 men and 519 women). 420 women who took BMD measurement, radiologic exam, and anthropometric exam were selected for the analysis. The analysis results are as follows. 1. General characteristics : Mean BMD was 0.493 g/cm2, mean age was 43.0, mean BMI was 23.9 kg/m(3). The number of women who experienced menopause was 106, hysterectomy was 19. There were 0 case of osteoarthritis of hip, 64 cases of osteoarthritis of knee, and 2 cases of osteoarthritis of hand. 2. Univariate analysis results : Mean BMD of women with the osteoarthritis of knee was significantly lower than that of women without the osteoarthritis of knee(0.4296 vs. 0.5057 g/cm2). But, there were to few cases of osteoarthritis of hip and hand, so comparative studies of BMD in ostearthritis of hip and hand could not be conducted. There were significant differences of BMD among pre-menopause group(0.5204), post-menopause group(0.4206), and hysterectomy group(0.4881). Additionally, there were significant differences of BMD among diabetes group(0.4297), impaired glucose tolerance group(0.4874), and normal group(0.5057). Furthermore, age, parity, BMI, bioimpedance wer significantly related with BMD. 3. Multivariate analysis results : To examine the relationship between osteoarthritis and BMD while controlling the other variables' effects which were significant in the univariate analyses, multiple linear regression analysis was done. But, it was found that osteoarthritis of knee was not a significant variable to BMD anymore. While age and menopause had significant negative relationship with BMD. Diabetes, parity, BMI, and bioimpedance did not have significant relationships with BMD. After stratification of subjects according to menopause, multiple linear regression analyses were done to each strata. Consequently, age in post-menopause group, age and osteoarthritis of knee in hysterectomy group showed significant negative relationship with BMD. The results did not support the many results of other previous studies done with white men and women. Further studies of biological plausibility to Korean women are recommended. Also it is suggested that longitudinal study to verify the relationship between osteoarthritis and BMD will be valuable.; Summary

Assessment of the Glycophorin A Mutant Assay as a Biologic Marker for Low Dose Radiation Exposure.: Mina Ha, Keun Young Yoo, Sung Whan Ha, Dong Hyun Kim, Soo Hun Cho; Korean J Prev Med. 2000;33(2):165-173.

2,982 View
31 Download

Abstract PDF: OBJECTIVES
To assess the availability of the glycophorin A (GPA) assay to detect the biological effect of ionizing radiation in workers exposed to low-doses of radiation. METHODS: Information on confounding factors, such as age and cigarette smoking was obtained on 144 nuclear power plant workers and 32 hospital workers, by a self-administered questionnaire. Information on physical exposure levels was obtained from the registries of radiation exposure monitoring and control at each facility. The GPA mutant assay was performed using the BR6 method with modification by using a FACScan flow cytometer. RESULTS: As confounders, age and cigarette smoking habits showed increasing trends with GPA variants, but these were of no statistical significance. Hospital workers showed a higher frequency of the GPA variant than nuclear power plant workers in terms of the NO variant. Significant dose-response relationships were obtained from in simple and multiple linear regression models. The slope of the regression equation for nuclear power plant workers was much smaller than that of hospital workers. These findings suggest that there may be apparent dose-rate effects. CONCLUSION: In population exposed to chronic low-dose radiation, the GPA assay has a potential to be used as an effective biologic marker for assessing the bone marrow cumulative exposure dose.; Summary

Structural Relationships among Health Concern, Health Practice and Health Status of the Disabled.: Ki Soo Park, Byung Yeol Chun, Sin Kam, Min Hae Yeh, Yun Sik Kang, Keon Yeop Kim, Jae Hee Son, Young Suk Lee; Korean J Prev Med. 1999;32(3):276-288.

2,955 View
27 Download

Abstract PDF: OBJECTIVES
This study was performed to determine the relationships among Health concern, health practice and health status of the disabled. METHODS: A self-administered questionnaire survey was carried out for 1,662 disabled persons in Taegu city from April to July, 1997. RESULTS: Health concern had a significant and positive relationship with health practice(p<0.05) and health practice also had a significant and positive relationship with self-rated health status(p<0.05) in men and women. To determine the structural model of the Health concern, health practice, health status and sociodemographic variables, the covariance structural analysis was used. In men, age, economic status, medical security type, educational level and type of disability had significant direct effects on Health concern(T>2.0). Educational level and type of disability had significant direct effects on health practice(T>2.0). And Economic status, medical security type and job status had significant direct effects on health status(T>2.0). In women, economic status and educational level had significant direct effects on Health concern(T>2.0). However there was no variable which had a significant direct effect on health practice. Job status had a significant direct effect on health status(T>2.0). In men and women, health practice was significantly increased with increasing Health concern and the more health practice, the higher health status(T>2.0). CONCLUSIONS: It is recommended that the institutional approach which improve the economic status of the disabled with understanding their behavior and attitude should be established to increase health status, in addition, the health policy for encouraging the disabled, such as health education, consulting and health promotion program, should be done.; Summary

First
Prev
Page of 1
Next
Last

Search